Rom 1:1

exegeticalRom 1:1–32; Rom 15:22–29

Introduction to Romans 1:1–32: author, setting, purpose, and the place of the chapter in the letter

• SaysPaul writes to the believers in Rome (1:1, 7), whom he plans to visit on the way to Spain after taking the collection to Jerusalem (1:10–13; 15:22–28).
• ImpliesThe letter was written from Corinth around AD 56–57 (Phoebe of Cenchreae, Gaius, Erastus; Acts 20:2–3); the place is well supported, the year less so.
• ImpliesThe Roman church was mixed, with a Gentile majority (1:5–6, 13; 16:3–16).
• UncertainPaul's purpose is a combination of missionary, pastoral (Jew–Gentile), and apologetic aims; the team holds these together.

✓ Approved SBLGNT CC BY 4.0 BSB public domain Suetonius (Rolfe) public domain

exegeticalRom 1:1–7

Paul, the gospel of God, and the Son (Romans 1:1–7)

• SaysPaul is a servant of Christ Jesus, a called apostle, set apart for the gospel of God (1:1).
• Impliesδοῦλος joins ownership with the OT honorific 'servant of the Lord,' with Christ Jesus in the place of the Lord.
• ImpliesThe passives 'called' and 'set apart' make God the one who commissions Paul; calling is likewise God's act for the readers (1:6–7).
• SaysThe gospel was promised beforehand through the prophets in the holy Scriptures (1:2) and concerns God's Son (1:3).
• ImpliesThe OT 'good news' of God's reign (Isa 40:9; 52:7) is the primary background of εὐαγγέλιον; imperial usage is secondary.
• ImpliesA single ἀπό governing 'God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ' (1:7), read with Paul's use of κύριος for the Lord's name (10:9–13), implies Jesus' deity.
• UncertainWhether ἀφωρισμένος puns on 'Pharisee'; the commentary does not build on it.

✓ Approved SBLGNT CC BY 4.0 BSB public domain LXX (Swete) CC BY-SA 4.0 Abbott-Smith public domain

historicalRom 1:1–7; Rom 16:1–2; Rom 15:25–26; Rom 16:23

Date and place of writing: Corinth, c. AD 56–57, and Phoebe

• SaysRom 15:25–26 places the writing just before Paul takes the Macedonian and Achaian collection to Jerusalem; Rom 16:1–2 commends Phoebe of Cenchreae; Rom 16:23 sends greetings from Gaius and Erastus.
• ImpliesCenchreae (Corinth's port), Gaius of Corinth (1 Cor 1:14), the collection in Achaia (1 Cor 16:1–4), and the three months in Greece (Acts 20:2–3) together point to Corinth as the place of writing, with Phoebe probably the bearer.
• UncertainThe year: counting from Gallio's proconsulship (c. AD 51–52) gives about AD 56–57, but reconstructions range roughly 55–58; the Ephesian-destination theory for Romans 16 is noted and not followed.

✓ Approved SBLGNT CC BY 4.0 BSB public domain Deissmann, St. Paul public domain

historicalRom 1:1–4; Rom 1:9; Rom 1:15–16

'Son of God' and 'gospel': the Old Testament frame and imperial usage

• SaysRom 1:1–4 calls the gospel God's, promised beforehand in the prophets, concerning his Son, of David's seed according to the flesh and declared Son of God in power by the resurrection.
• ImpliesPaul's own appeal to the prophets (1:2) and the Davidic and royal-son texts (2 Sam 7:12–14; Ps 2:7) and Isaiah's herald (Isa 40:9; 52:7; cf. Rom 10:15) make the OT, not imperial propaganda, the primary source of 'Son of God' and 'gospel' in Rom 1:1–4.
• UncertainWhether Paul intended a deliberate counter-imperial polemic is debated; imperial usage is real background that Roman readers could hear, but it is secondary to the scriptural frame.

✓ Approved SBLGNT CC BY 4.0 LXX (Swete) CC BY-SA 4.0 BSB public domain OGIS public domain Deissmann, LAE public domain

languageRom 1:1; Rom 1:5

κλητὸς ἀπόστολος ἀφωρισμένος: "called apostle, set apart"

• SaysPaul is 'a called apostle, set apart for the gospel of God' (1:1).
• ImpliesThe passive forms present God as the one who calls and sets apart; the apostolic office is from God (cf. Gal 1:1, 15).
• UncertainPossible wordplay of ἀφωρισμένος on 'Pharisee'; not relied on.

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languageRom 1:1

δοῦλος Χριστοῦ Ἰησοῦ: "slave/servant of Christ Jesus"

• SaysPaul calls himself δοῦλος Χριστοῦ Ἰησοῦ, a slave belonging to Christ Jesus.
• ImpliesThe title combines total belonging to Christ with the OT honorific 'servant of the Lord', applied with Christ in the Lord's place.
• UncertainBest English rendering, 'slave' or 'servant'.

✓ Approved SBLGNT CC BY 4.0 Abbott-Smith public domain LXX (Swete) CC BY-SA 4.0 BSB public domain

languageRom 1:1; Rom 1:2; Rom 1:9; Rom 1:16

εὐαγγέλιον θεοῦ: "the gospel of God"

• SaysThe gospel is God's, promised in the prophets, and concerns his Son (1:1–3).
• Impliesθεοῦ in 1:1 is a genitive of source; the Son is the gospel's content.
• UncertainWhether Paul intends a contrast with imperial 'good news' language in 1:1–4.

✓ Approved SBLGNT CC BY 4.0 Abbott-Smith public domain LXX (Swete) CC BY-SA 4.0

Rom 1:2

languageRom 1:2; Rom 1:3; Rom 1:4

Seed, son, throne: 2 Sam 7:12–16 behind Rom 1:2–4

• Says2 Sam 7:12–16 promises David an offspring whose throne endures forever and who will be God's son.
• ImpliesRom 1:2–4 identifies Jesus as this promised seed and son; the 'forever' reaches beyond Solomon.
• UncertainA wordplay ἀναστήσω (2 Kgdms 7:12) / ἀναστάσεως (Rom 1:4) is possible, not demonstrable.

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Rom 1:3

exegeticalRom 1:3–4

Seed of David according to the flesh, Son of God in power by the resurrection (Romans 1:3–4)

• SaysThe gospel concerns 'His Son,' described in two participial clauses: from David's seed κατὰ σάρκα (1:3) and appointed Son of God in power κατὰ πνεῦμα ἁγιωσύνης by the resurrection (1:4).
• ImpliesBecause 'His Son' precedes both clauses, 1:4 describes the Son's installation in power at the resurrection, not the beginning of his Sonship (cf. 8:3, 32; Gal 4:4).
• Implies'Seed of David' presents Jesus as the heir promised in 2 Sam 7:12–16, and the resurrection as his enthronement in the sense of Ps 2:7 (cf. Acts 13:33).
• Uncertainὁρίζω: 'appointed/installed' (favored by usage) or 'declared' (BSB); both mean installed, not made, Son.
• Uncertainἐν δυνάμει modifies 'Son of God' (team) or the participle.
• Uncertainκατὰ σάρκα / κατὰ πνεῦμα: two natures, two eras, or the Holy Spirit as agent; the team holds eras and the Spirit together without denying the two natures, and the Hebrew idiom (Isa 63:10–11; Ps 51:11) supports the Spirit.
• UncertainWhether 1:3–4 incorporates an earlier confession; either way it is Paul's teaching.

✓ Approved SBLGNT CC BY 4.0 BSB public domain OSHB CC BY 4.0 LXX (Swete) CC BY-SA 4.0

languageRom 1:3; Rom 1:4

κατὰ σάρκα / κατὰ πνεῦμα ἁγιωσύνης

• SaysThe Son is from David's seed κατὰ σάρκα and appointed Son of God in power κατὰ πνεῦμα ἁγιωσύνης (1:3–4).
• Saysἁγιωσύνη occurs in the NT only at Rom 1:4; 2 Cor 7:1; 1 Thess 3:13, and only Rom 1:4 joins it to πνεῦμα.
• Impliesπνεῦμα ἁγιωσύνης is an attributive genitive, 'holy Spirit', after the Hebrew idiom; the κατά pair contrasts the Son's human descent with the Spirit's work at the resurrection (8:11).
• UncertainHoly Spirit (team), Christ's divine nature, or Christ's holy spirit; all affirm the Son's deity.

✓ Approved SBLGNT CC BY 4.0 RP2018 Unlicense TR (Scrivener 1894) public domain Tischendorf⁸ public domain LXX (Swete) CC BY-SA 4.0

Rom 1:4

languageRom 1:4

τοῦ ὁρισθέντος υἱοῦ θεοῦ ἐν δυνάμει: appointed, not made Son

• Saysὁρισθέντος is aorist passive of ὁρίζω, a verb meaning 'appoint/designate' in its other NT uses (Acts 10:42; 17:31).
• Implies1:4 is the Son's installation in power at the resurrection, not the beginning of his Sonship (1:3 'his Son').
• UncertainWhether ἐν δυνάμει modifies υἱοῦ θεοῦ (team) or the participle.

✓ Approved SBLGNT CC BY 4.0 RP2018 Unlicense TR (Scrivener 1894) public domain Tischendorf⁸ public domain Epiph., Pan. public domain

languageRom 1:4

"You are My Son": בְּנִי אַתָּה (Ps 2:7)

• SaysPs 2:7 בְּנִי אַתָּה אֲנִי הַיּוֹם יְלִדְתִּיךָ: a decree to the enthroned Davidic king.
• ImpliesPs 2:7 applies 2 Sam 7:14's father–son language to the enthroned king.
• ImpliesRom 1:4 fits Ps 2:7's enthronement frame (cf. Acts 13:33).
• ImpliesRom 1:3 'his Son' precedes 1:4, so 1:4 is about installation in power, not the origin of sonship.

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languageRom 1:4

"Spirit of holiness": רוּחַ קָדְשׁוֹ behind Rom 1:4

• SaysPs 51:11 (MT 51:13) and Isa 63:10–11: רוּחַ + קָדְשׁוֹ + suffix, an attributive genitive meaning 'his holy Spirit'.
• SaysLXX uses τὸ πνεῦμα τὸ ἅγιον; Swete's ἁγιωσύνη (5x: four Psalms and 2 Macc 3:12) never goes with πνεῦμα; Rom 1:4 πνεῦμα ἁγιωσύνης is Paul's form.
• ImpliesThe OT idiom names God's own Spirit, favoring the Holy Spirit in Rom 1:4.
• UncertainHoly Spirit, Christ's divine nature, or Christ's holy spirit; Hebrew background favors the Holy Spirit; all affirm the Son's deity.

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Rom 1:5

exegeticalRom 1:5–6; Rom 16:25–27

The obedience of faith among all the nations (Romans 1:5–6)

• SaysPaul's apostleship is 'for the obedience of faith among all the nations' (1:5).
• Uncertainὑπακοὴ πίστεως: genitive of source (team), apposition (close behind), or objective (unlikely, anarthrous).
• ImpliesOn any reading the phrase does not make obedience a ground of justification (3:28; 4:5); faith and obedience are distinct but not separated (6:16–17; 15:18).
• SaysThe phrase recurs in the doxology at Rom 16:26 (Rom.16.25-27), whose placement differs in RP (after 14:23) and SBLGNT (apparatus only).
• ImpliesThe repetition at 1:5 and 16:26 frames the letter's purpose.

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historicalRom 1:5–13; Rom 16:3–5; Acts 18:2

The Roman church: Jews and Gentiles, Claudius's expulsion, and Prisca and Aquila

• SaysRom 1:5–6, 13 address the readers as among the Gentiles; Rom 16:3–5, 7, 11 greet Prisca, Aquila, and Jewish kinsmen; Acts 18:2 links Aquila and Priscilla's departure from Rome to Claudius's order.
• UncertainWhether Suetonius's 'Chrestus' refers to Christ, whether Suetonius and Dio describe one event, and whether the expulsion fell in AD 49 (Orosius) are all unresolved.
• ImpliesA temporary absence of Jewish believers after Claudius's expulsion, followed by their return after AD 54, would account for a mainly Gentile readership addressed directly in Romans and for the appeal to mutual welcome in 14:1–15:13.

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languageRom 1:5

εἰς ὑπακοὴν πίστεως: "the obedience of faith"

• SaysPaul's apostleship aims at 'obedience of faith among all the nations' (1:5).
• ImpliesFaith and obedience are distinguished but inseparable; obedience is not a ground of justification (3:28; 4:5).
• UncertainGenitive of source vs apposition; team leans source.

✓ Approved SBLGNT CC BY 4.0 Abbott-Smith public domain

Rom 1:8

exegeticalRom 1:8–15

Thanksgiving, prayer, and Paul's obligation to Greeks and barbarians (Romans 1:8–15)

• SaysPaul thanks God for the Romans' faith, prays constantly to visit, and wants mutual encouragement (1:8–12).
• Impliesλατρεύω (1:9) presents Paul's gospel ministry as worship (cf. 15:16).
• SaysHe was prevented from visiting (1:13); 15:19–23 explains the hindrance as unfinished work in the east.
• Implies'Greeks and barbarians, wise and foolish' (1:14) together mean all humanity; Paul's debt is a trust from Christ (1 Cor 9:16–17).
• ImpliesPreaching the gospel to believers (1:15) shows the gospel is the whole message the church goes on learning.

✓ Approved SBLGNT CC BY 4.0 BSB public domain LXX (Swete) CC BY-SA 4.0

Rom 1:10

historicalRom 1:10–15; Rom 15:22–32; Acts 19:21; Acts 28:14–16

Paul's travel plans: Jerusalem, Rome, and Spain

• SaysRom 1:10–13 and 15:22–32 state Paul's repeated hindrance, his plan to visit Rome en route to Spain, and the prior Jerusalem journey with the collection; Acts 19:21 states the same plan, and Acts 28:14–16, 30 records his arrival in Rome as a prisoner.
• ImpliesBecause Paul writes to a church he did not found and seeks its help for a western mission, Romans functions partly as a letter of introduction; the outcome in Acts shows his fears of 15:31 realized and his arrival in Rome by an unplanned route.
• UncertainWhether Paul reached Spain is not stated in Scripture; 1 Clem. 5.7 ('the extreme limit of the west') is ambiguous.

✓ Approved SBLGNT CC BY 4.0 BSB public domain ANF public domain

Rom 1:14

historicalRom 1:14; Rom 1:16

Greeks and barbarians, wise and foolish (Rom 1:14)

• SaysRom 1:14 names Paul a debtor to Greeks and barbarians, wise and foolish; Paul uses βάρβαρος of an unintelligible speaker in 1 Cor 14:11, and Acts 28:2 uses it of the Maltese.
• ImpliesThe paired phrases sum up all humanity by culture and education, so the Roman readers are included without ranking; 1:16 restates the universality in terms of Jew and Greek.
• UncertainWhether 'wise and foolish' restates 'Greeks and barbarians' or adds a separate contrast is debated; the universal sense is unaffected.

✓ Approved SBLGNT CC BY 4.0 BSB public domain Strabo (Jones) CC BY-SA 3.0 Plautus (Goetz–Schoell) public domain 🔒︎ Latin Library public domain

Rom 1:16

exegeticalRom 1:16–17

The gospel, the power of God for salvation (Romans 1:16–17)

• SaysThe γάρ chain in 1:16–17 links Paul's eagerness, his not being ashamed, the gospel as God's power for salvation, the revelation of God's righteousness, and Hab 2:4.
• ImpliesThe γάρ chain makes 1:16–17 the theme of the letter, whose terms chapters 1–11 unfold.
• Implies'Not ashamed' is litotes for bold confession, set against the scandal of the cross (1 Cor 1:18–25).
• ImpliesThe gospel is the means by which God saves, not only a report of salvation.
• Implies'First to the Jew' is a covenant and historical priority; faith is the one condition for all (3:22; 10:12).
• ImpliesThe parallel revelations of righteousness (1:17) and wrath (1:18) show why the gospel is needed.

✓ Approved SBLGNT CC BY 4.0 BSB public domain

Rom 1:17

exegeticalRom 1:17; Hab 2:2–4; Gal 3:11; Heb 10:38

'From faith to faith' and Paul's use of Habakkuk 2:4 (Romans 1:17)

• Uncertainἐκ πίστεως εἰς πίστιν: intensive 'by faith from first to last' (team), God's faithfulness to human faith, preacher to hearer, or growth.
• SaysPaul cites Hab 2:4 without the pronoun of either the MT (באמונתו, 'his') or the LXX (μου, 'my'); LXX A (as widely reported) and Heb 10:38 read 'my righteous one.'
• ImpliesOmitting the pronoun focuses on faith as the way the righteous live; Hebrew אמונה is steady reliance on God's word (Hab 2:2–4), which Paul calls faith.
• UncertainWhether 'by faith' goes with 'the righteous' or 'will live'; meanings converge, and the team keeps the BSB.
• ImpliesGal 3:11 and Gen 15:6 (Rom 4:3) confirm Paul reads Hab 2:4 of righteousness by faith.

✓ Approved SBLGNT CC BY 4.0 BSB public domain OSHB CC BY 4.0 LXX (Swete) CC BY-SA 4.0

exegeticalRom 1:17; Rom 4:3–8; Rom 5:18–19; Phil 3:9

Doctrinal note: the imputation of righteousness (grounded in Romans 4:3–8; 5:18–19; Philippians 3:9)

• ImpliesThe righteousness God gives believers is credited (λογίζομαι) to them apart from works, not produced in them as the ground of acceptance (Rom 4:3–8; Gen 15:6; Ps 32:1–2).
• ImpliesRom 5:18–19 grounds the many's righteous standing in the obedience of the one man, parallel to Adam.
• ImpliesPhil 3:9 contrasts one's own righteousness with the righteousness from God through faith.
• UncertainWhether the passages require imputation of Christ's active obedience is debated among Protestants; the team holds that 5:18–19 with Phil 3:9 supports it (WCF 11.1).

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exegeticalRom 1:17; Rom 3:21–26; Rom 10:3; Phil 3:9

The meaning of δικαιοσύνη θεοῦ in Romans 1:17

• SaysGod's righteousness is revealed in the gospel, from faith to faith, with Hab 2:4 cited as support (1:17).
• ImpliesAt 1:17 δικαιοσύνη θεοῦ is God's saving righteousness received by faith, not his punitive justice; cf. Ps 98:2 (LXX 97:2); Isa 46:13; 51:5–8.
• ImpliesRead with 3:21–26, 10:3, and Phil 3:9, it includes both God's saving act and the righteous status he gives to believers (genitive of source/author).
• UncertainHow far 'covenant faithfulness' belongs to the meaning at 1:17 rather than 3:3–5, 25–26; the team holds the gift sense primary, God's faithfulness its ground.

✓ Approved SBLGNT CC BY 4.0 BSB public domain LXX (Swete) CC BY-SA 4.0 OSHB CC BY 4.0

languageRom 1:17; Rom 1:18

ἀποκαλύπτεται twice: righteousness and wrath (1:17/1:18)

• Says1:17 and 1:18 use the same present passive ἀποκαλύπτεται, of God's righteousness and of God's wrath.
• ImpliesWrath is presently revealed in God's handing people over (1:24–28), ahead of the day of wrath (2:5).
• UncertainExact logical force of γάρ in 1:18; team: grounds the need for the gospel.

✓ Approved SBLGNT CC BY 4.0 Abbott-Smith public domain

languageRom 1:17

δικαιοσύνη θεοῦ: grammar, construals, and the historic Protestant reading

• SaysGod's righteousness is revealed in the gospel ἐκ πίστεως εἰς πίστιν, with Hab 2:4 as warrant (1:17).
• ImpliesIn context the revealed righteousness reaches believers as a status received by faith (1:17; 3:21–26).
• ImpliesImputation of Christ's righteousness (from 4:3–8; 5:17–19; 2 Cor 5:21; Phil 3:9).
• UncertainGrammatical category of θεοῦ (source vs subjective); team prefers forensic gift without excluding God's saving action.

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languageRom 1:17

ἐκ πίστεως εἰς πίστιν: "by faith from start to finish"

• Says1:17 repeats πίστις in an ἐκ … εἰς pattern, which Paul uses intensively at 2 Cor 2:16.
• Impliesεἰς πίστιν picks up 'everyone who believes' (1:16), so at least the second half refers to the believer's faith.
• UncertainWhose faith in ἐκ πίστεως: the team reads both halves as the believer's (1:16; Gal 3:11; Rom 3:30; 5:1); some evangelicals hold God's/Christ's faithfulness to human faith.

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languageRom 1:17

Hab 2:2–4 context: כְּתוֹב חָזוֹן and waiting

• SaysHab 2:2–4: write the vision; wait though it lingers; the righteous lives by אֱמוּנָה.
• SaysLXX 2:3 ὑπόμεινον αὐτόν, ὅτι ἐρχόμενος ἥξει; Heb 10:37 adds the article, ὁ ἐρχόμενος.
• ImpliesLXX 2:3 masculine αὐτόν (not ὅρασις; possibly καιρόν) and ἐρχόμενος read most naturally of a person.
• ImpliesHab 2:4b concerns persevering trust in God's word during delay.
• UncertainWhether LXX 2:3 is messianic or a personification; MT reads 'it'.

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languageRom 1:17

Hab 2:4b behind Rom 1:17: בֶּאֱמוּנָתוֹ

• SaysMT Hab 2:4b וְצַדִּיק בֶּאֱמוּנָתוֹ יִחְיֶה: be- + אֱמוּנָה (construct) + 3ms suffix; accents join בֶּאֱמוּנָתוֹ to יִחְיֶה.
• SaysBDB p. 53: אֱמוּנָה = firmness, steadfastness, fidelity (faithfulness, trust); concrete use Exod 17:12.
• ImpliesIn context the word names steady trust in God during delay; πίστις is a fair rendering.
• UncertainEnglish 'faith' vs 'faithfulness'; team reads trusting faithfulness.

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languageRom 1:17; Hab 2:4; Gal 3:11; Heb 10:38

Hab 2:4 in Rom 1:17: Paul, LXX (Swete), MT, and Heb 10:38

• SaysRom 1:17 and Gal 3:11 cite Hab 2:4 without a possessive pronoun.
• SaysIn MT Hab 2:4 the 3ms suffix on בֶּאֱמוּנָתוֹ agrees with צַדִּיק, the nearest masculine singular noun and subject of יִחְיֶה.
• ImpliesThe suffix most likely refers to the righteous one (team, with note.textual.Rom.1.17.hab-2-4-pronoun).
• Impliesאֱמוּנָה (steadfast faithfulness) and Paul's πίστις (trust) cohere: Paul stresses trust in God's word without denying perseverance (cf. Gen 15:6 in Gal 3:6–11).
• UncertainMinority referent for the suffix: the vision (חָזוֹן), ranked below the righteous one.
• UncertainWhether ἐκ πίστεως modifies ὁ δίκαιος or ζήσεται.

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languageRom 1:17

Paul's use of Hab 2:4 (Rom 1:17; Gal 3:11)

• SaysRom 1:17 and Gal 3:11 cite Hab 2:4b without a pronoun; Heb 10:38 keeps μου with δίκαιος.
• ImpliesThe pronoun-less form puts the weight on ἐκ πίστεως, linked to 1:16 and Gen 15:6 (Rom 4).
• UncertainWhose πίστις: believer's faith (team), God's faithfulness, or Christ's faithfulness.

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VariantRom 1:17

Textual: Hab 2:4b, בֶּאֱמוּנָתוֹ / ἐκ πίστεώς μου

• SaysMT בֶּאֱמוּנָתוֹ (3ms suffix); LXX ἐκ πίστεώς μου; A adds μου after δίκαιος (Swete app., no change recorded at πίστεώς μου; A widely reported as δίκαιός μου ἐκ πίστεως, by reference, not checked); Rom 1:17 and Gal 3:11 have no pronoun; Heb 10:38 has μου after δίκαιος, as A does, but none after πίστεως; 1QpHab's pesher presupposes a third-person referent.
• UncertainAntecedent: the righteous one (team); the vision ranks well below; God is very unlikely, since God speaks in 2:2–5.
• ImpliesPaul's pronoun-less form fits the MT's human referent.

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Rom 1:18

exegeticalRom 1:18

The wrath of God revealed against those who suppress the truth (Romans 1:18)

• SaysGod's wrath is being revealed from heaven against all ungodliness and unrighteousness of those who suppress the truth (1:18).
• ImpliesThe γάρ makes 1:18–3:20 the reason the gospel of 1:16–17 is needed; both revelations are present and ongoing.
• Impliesὀργὴ θεοῦ is God's personal, judicial opposition to sin, not an impersonal process: it parallels 'the righteousness of God,' God is the subject of the handing over (1:24–28), and it has a future day (2:5; 5:9).
• ImpliesUngodliness (1:19–23, 25, 28a) and unrighteousness (1:24, 26–31) describe one rebellion, and the wrong toward God comes first.
• Impliesκατέχω means 'suppress': the truth is present and is held down (1:19–21).

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exegeticalRom 2:1–29; Rom 1:18–3:20

Introduction to Romans 2:1–29: the place of the chapter in the indictment of 1:18–3:20

• SaysRomans 2 turns from 1:18–32 to the one who judges others (2:1), states that God judges according to truth, according to deeds, without partiality and through Christ Jesus (2:2, 6, 11, 16), and names the Jew at 2:17.
• ImpliesRomans 2 belongs to the indictment of 1:18–3:20 that concludes in 3:9, 19–20: all, Jew and Greek, are under sin and accountable to God; its statements about judgment and doing serve that purpose.

✓ Approved SBLGNT CC BY 4.0 BSB public domain

exegeticalRom 3:1–31; Rom 1:18–3:20

Introduction to Romans 3:1–31: the close of the indictment and the righteousness of God revealed

• Says3:1 asks the Jew's advantage; 3:9 and 3:20 give the verdict that all are under sin and that no one is justified by works of the law; 3:21 announces the righteousness of God revealed apart from the law.
• Implies3:1–20 completes the indictment of 1:18–3:20: the Jew's advantages are real but do not exempt him; 3:21–26 takes up the thesis of 1:16–17 and states how God justifies sinners; 3:27–31 draws the consequences.

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historicalRom 1:18–32; Wis 13:1–9; Wis 14:12–27

Hellenistic Jewish polemic: Wisdom 13–14, Aristeas, and Philo

• SaysRom 1:20–31 moves from God's power and deity seen in creation, to humanity being without excuse, to idolatry, to God's handing people over to impurity and vice.
• ImpliesPaul follows the Hellenistic Jewish anti-idol pattern (Wis 13–14, non-canonical) and then applies its verdict to the Jewish judge as well (Rom 2:1; 3:9, 19–20).
• UncertainLiterary dependence of Romans on Wisdom of Solomon cannot be demonstrated; a shared tradition is equally possible. Whether Paul has Wisdom's exemption of Israel specifically in view (Wis 15:2) also cannot be shown.

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languageRom 1:18

τῶν τὴν ἀλήθειαν ἐν ἀδικίᾳ κατεχόντων

• SaysThey 'hold/suppress the truth in unrighteousness' (present participle).
• ImpliesThe participle means suppression of truth that is actually known (1:19, 21).
• Uncertain'Hold' vs 'suppress' for κατέχω; team prefers 'suppress', noting Abbott-Smith's listing.

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languageRom 1:18

ὀργὴ θεοῦ: "the wrath of God"

• SaysGod's wrath is revealed from heaven against all ungodliness and unrighteousness of people (1:18).
• ImpliesWrath is God's personal, judicial opposition to sin, answered in Christ's death (3:25; 5:9).
• UncertainImpersonal-process reading of ὀργή; judged unlikely given θεοῦ and παρέδωκεν ὁ θεός.

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Rom 1:19

exegeticalRom 1:19–20; Rom 2:14–15; Acts 14:17; Acts 17:24–28

Doctrinal note: general revelation and natural theology from Romans 1:19–20

• SaysGod makes himself known in creation to all, leaving them without excuse (1:19–20); conscience also bears witness (2:14–15).
• ImpliesGeneral revelation is clear and makes all accountable but does not save; the gospel alone is God's saving power (1:16).
• ImpliesAgainst a denial of natural knowledge, Paul says they 'knew God' (1:21); against a confident natural theology, that knowledge ends in idolatry (1:21–23).
• ImpliesThe team holds the Reformed position (WCF 1.1; Belgic 2; Calvin, Inst. 1.3–1.6).

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exegeticalRom 1:19–21

What may be known about God is plain to them (Romans 1:19–21)

• SaysWhat may be known about God is plain to all because God has shown it; his eternal power and divine nature are understood from the things he made (1:19–20).
• ImpliesThe knowledge is real but limited (power and θειότης, not his saving purpose), and it makes people accountable without saving them.
• Implies'Since the creation of the world' and ποιήμασιν echo Gen 1:1 and the ordered creation of Gen 1.
• ImpliesThe root sin is a refusal to glorify and thank God (1:21), and the darkening of mind follows as consequence.
• ImpliesUnlike Wis 13:6 (non-canonical), which calls their blame small, Paul says they knew and refused.

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Rom 1:20

languageRom 1:20; Rom 2:1

ἀναπολογήτους: "without excuse"

• SaysPeople are 'without excuse' (ἀναπολογήτους), a forensic term reused in 2:1.
• ImpliesThe verdict leaves no plea of ignorance and prepares for 3:19.
• UncertainPurpose vs result for εἰς τὸ εἶναι.

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languageRom 1:20; Rom 1:23; Rom 1:25; Rom 1:26; Rom 1:27

Creator and creature: Gen 1:20–27 behind Rom 1:20–27

• SaysGen 1:20–27: creatures by kind; humanity in God's image, male and female, ruling the animals; LXX πετεινά, τετράποδα, ἑρπετά; ἄρσεν καὶ θῆλυ.
• ImpliesRom 1:23–27 reverses the Gen 1 order and uses its LXX vocabulary (1:23 creature list; 1:25 creature/Creator; 1:26–27 θήλειαι/ἄρσενες).
• UncertainAn additional allusion to Adam's fall (Gen 3) is possible but not shown by the vocabulary.

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languageRom 1:20

τὰ ἀόρατα … νοούμενα καθορᾶται: the invisible "clearly seen"

• SaysGod's invisible attributes, his eternal power and divinity, are clearly seen, being understood through the things made, since creation (1:20).
• ImpliesThis knowledge is real and suffices for accountability, not for salvation (1:16; 10:14–17).
• UncertainPrecise nuance of θειότης vs θεότης.

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Rom 1:22

exegeticalRom 1:22–23; Rom 1:25

They exchanged the glory of the immortal God (Romans 1:22–23, 25)

• SaysClaiming wisdom, they became fools and exchanged the glory of the immortal God for images of mortal man and animals (1:22–23).
• SaysThe wording echoes Ps 106:20 (LXX 105:20) and Jer 2:11, where Israel exchanged its Glory, God himself.
• ImpliesUsing Israel's confession of apostasy for Gentile idolatry prepares for 2:1–3:20, where Jew and Greek alike are under sin.
• UncertainWhether the golden calf itself is in view, and whether Adam's fall is alluded to.
• ImpliesThe structure of 1:23 is from Deut 4:15–18 and its vocabulary from Gen 1:20–26; the order of creation is reversed.
• Implies'The lie' (1:25) is idolatry itself; the doxology gives God the praise withheld.

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historicalRom 1:22–23; Ps 106:20; Jer 2:11; Deut 4:16–18

Idol and animal worship (Rom 1:23): Greco-Roman images and Egyptian cults

• SaysRom 1:22–23 says those claiming wisdom exchanged the glory of the immortal God for a likeness of an image of mortal man, birds, four-footed animals, and reptiles.
• ImpliesThe phrase 'exchanged the glory … in the likeness of' echoes Ps 106:20 (LXX 105:20) and Jer 2:11, with Deut 4:16–18 in the background, so Paul describes Gentile idolatry in the language of Israel's golden calf and prepares for the indictment of Jews in 2:1–3:20.
• ImpliesThe list of human and animal forms covers both the anthropomorphic images of Greco-Roman cult and the theriomorphic cults for which Egypt was notorious.

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Rom 1:23

languageRom 1:23

Likeness and image: תַּבְנִית in Deut 4:15–18

• SaysDeut 4:15–18 forbids any תַּבְנִית of male, female, beast, bird, creeping thing, or fish, because Israel saw no form.
• SaysLXX uses ὁμοίωμα and εἰκών, the pair in Rom 1:23.
• ImpliesRom 1:23 echoes Deut 4's ban and its rationale (God showed no form).
• UncertainPaul's animal terms match Gen 1 LXX more than Deut 4 LXX; probably Deut's structure with Gen's vocabulary.

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languageRom 1:23

"Exchanged the glory": וַיָּמִירוּ אֶת־כְּבוֹדָם (Ps 106:20; Jer 2:11)

• SaysPs 106:20 and Jer 2:11 use Hiphil הֵמִיר for exchanging God, Israel's Glory, for an image or a worthless thing.
• SaysRom 1:23 shares ἀλλάσσω + τὴν δόξαν + ἐν ὁμοιώματι with LXX Ps 105:20.
• ImpliesPaul indicts humanity in the words of Israel's confession, preparing Rom 2:1–3:20.
• UncertainWhether the golden calf itself is in view or only the psalm's wording.

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languageRom 1:23

ἐν ὁμοιώματι εἰκόνος: LXX vocabulary behind 1:23

• Says1:23 describes exchanging God's glory 'in the likeness of an image' of man, birds, four-footed animals and reptiles.
• ImpliesThe exchange formula echoes Ps 106:20 (LXX 105:20) / Jer 2:11; the ὁμοίωμα–εἰκών pairing echoes Deut 4:16; the animal vocabulary matches Gen 1:20–26 LXX.
• UncertainWhether Gen 1 or Deut 4 is the primary intended allusion; likely both.

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VariantRom 1:23

Textual: כְּבוֹדָם (Ps 106:20) and כְּבוֹדוֹ (Jer 2:11), the "scribal corrections" tradition

• UncertainWhether a real scribal change lies behind MT כְּבוֹדָם and כְּבוֹדוֹ: uncertain; no Hebrew manuscript reads 'my glory'; decision MT, high.
• ImpliesIn Ps 106:20 and Jer 2:11 the context identifies the Glory as God (Ps 106:21; Jer 2:13).
• SaysRom 1:23: the glory exchanged was τοῦ ἀφθάρτου θεοῦ.

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Rom 1:24

exegeticalRom 1:24–28

God gave them over: the present form of the wrath (Romans 1:24–28)

• SaysThree times 'God gave them over' (1:24, 26, 28), each answering an exchange or refusal (1:23, 25, 28).
• ImpliesThe handing over is God's active judicial act and the present form of the wrath of 1:18; the desires remain theirs, and God is not the author of sin (Ps 81:12; Acts 7:42; WCF 5.4, 5.6).
• ImpliesThe same verb for the giving up of the Son (4:25; 8:32) answers the handing over of 1:24–28.
• Says1:28 plays on οὐκ ἐδοκίμασαν / ἀδόκιμον νοῦν.
• ImpliesA mind that refused to approve God is handed over to a mind that cannot approve rightly; 12:2 is its reversal.

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languageRom 1:24; Rom 1:26; Rom 1:28

παρέδωκεν αὐτοὺς ὁ θεός (three times)

• Says'God gave them over' is repeated at 1:24, 26, 28, each time answering an exchange or refusal.
• ImpliesThe handing over is God's active judicial act, the present form of wrath (1:18), while the sin remains the sinners' own.
• ImpliesThe same verb for the Son's being delivered up (4:25; 8:32) points to the remedy.

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Rom 1:26

exegeticalRom 1:26–27

Natural and unnatural relations (Romans 1:26–27)

• SaysGod gave them over to dishonorable passions; females exchanged (μετήλλαξαν) the natural use for that which is παρὰ φύσιν, and likewise males, abandoning (ἀφέντες) the natural use of the female, burned for one another, males with males (1:26–27).
• Says1:26–27 illustrate the dishonoring of bodies (1:24) that follows the exchange of the Creator for the creature (1:25).
• ImpliesOn the historic reading, held by the team, the verses judge same-sex intercourse contrary to the Creator's design, on the grounds of παρὰ φύσιν in a creation frame, the Gen 1:27 echo (θήλειαι/ἄρσενες), the Lev 18:22; 20:13 background, and the mutuality of εἰς ἀλλήλους.
• Impliesὁμοίως (1:27) ties the men's abandoning (ἀφέντες) of τὴν φυσικὴν χρῆσιν to the women's exchange (μετήλλαξαν) of it in 1:26; since both leave the natural use, the women's clause refers to same-sex relations.
• UncertainThe 'error' is probably idolatry and the 'due penalty' the handing over itself; the text does not say more.
• ImpliesThe passage does not single out one group; 1:29–31 and 2:1 extend the charge to all, and 3:22–24 offers grace to all.

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historicalRom 1:26–27; Lev 18:22; Lev 20:13; Gen 1:27

Romans 1:26–27 in its first-century setting

• SaysRom 1:26–27 says God gave people over to dishonorable passions, that women exchanged natural relations for those contrary to nature, and that men abandoned relations with women and burned with desire for one another, males with males.
• ImpliesBecause the text describes mutual desire ('for one another'), includes women, and echoes the 'male and female' of Gen 1:27, it condemns same-sex intercourse as such, as contrary to the Creator's design, not only exploitative pederasty.
• ImpliesRom 1:26 most likely refers to sexual relations between women: 'likewise' (ὁμοίως, 1:27) links the men's act to the women's, both depart from 'the natural use' (τὴν φυσικὴν χρῆσιν), and the 'females'/'males' wording echoes Gen 1:27.
• SaysRom 3:23–24 says all have sinned and are justified freely by God's grace.

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historicalRom 1:26–27; Rom 2:14; 1 Cor 11:14

'Nature' (physis) and Stoic natural law

• SaysRom 1:26–27 contrasts 'the natural use' with what is 'contrary to nature'; Paul also uses φύσις in Gal 2:15, Rom 2:14, and 1 Cor 11:14.
• ImpliesBecause Rom 1:18–27 is framed by the Creator and his works (1:20, 25) and uses the 'male' and 'female' terms of Gen 1:27 LXX, 'nature' in 1:26–27 denotes God's created order rather than Stoic natural law or mere custom.
• UncertainWhether φύσις in 1 Cor 11:14 denotes created order or ingrained custom is debated; the Romans usage does not depend on the answer.

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languageRom 1:26; Rom 1:27

Lev 18:22; 20:13 behind Rom 1:26–27: מִשְׁכְּבֵי אִשָּׁה and תּוֹעֵבָה

• SaysLev 18:22 and 20:13 forbid a male lying with a male מִשְׁכְּבֵי אִשָּׁה; both are called תּוֹעֵבָה; LXX ἄρσενος κοίτην, βδέλυγμα.
• ImpliesRom 1:26–27 applies this prohibition, with Gen 1:27, as a creation-order moral norm; the women's clause (1:26) is joined to the men's by ὁμοίως (historic Protestant reading).
• Impliesתּוֹעֵבָה is not merely ritual: moral uses and Lev 18:24–28 (the land vomited out the defiled nations, 18:24–25, 28).

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languageRom 1:26; Rom 1:27

τὴν φυσικὴν χρῆσιν … εἰς τὴν παρὰ φύσιν

• Says1:26–27 contrasts 'natural use' with what is 'contrary to nature', using the sex terms θήλειαι and ἄρσενες and the reciprocal εἰς ἀλλήλους.
• Implies'Nature' denotes the Creator's male-female design (Gen 1:27), and the acts themselves are described as departures from it.
• ImpliesThe text's judgment concerns the acts themselves, described as mutual (εἰς ἀλλήλους), not only exploitation or excess.
• Impliesὁμοίως (1:27) links the women's exchange in 1:26 to the men's, so 1:26 refers to same-sex relations.

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Rom 1:28

historicalRom 1:29–31; Rom 1:28

The vice list of Rom 1:29–31: form and rhetoric

• SaysRom 1:29–31 lists some twenty-one vices after 'filled with' and 'full of,' with the wordplay φθόνου φόνου (1:29) and a closing run of four ἀ- words (1:31).
• ImpliesThe vices are presented as the outworking of the refusal to acknowledge God (1:28), touching neighbor, family, and God; the sound patterns suit oral reading.
• UncertainNo specific source for the catalog can be identified; parallels in Stoic, Hellenistic Jewish, and Qumran texts show a shared form.

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languageRom 1:28

οὐκ ἐδοκίμασαν … εἰς ἀδόκιμον νοῦν: wordplay

• Saysοὐκ ἐδοκίμασαν (1:28a) is matched by εἰς ἀδόκιμον νοῦν (1:28b).
• ImpliesThe judgment corresponds to the sin: refusing to 'approve' God issues in an 'unapproved' mind (contrast 12:2).
• UncertainActive ('undiscerning') vs passive ('disqualified') force of ἀδόκιμος.

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Rom 1:29

exegeticalRom 1:29–32

Filled with all unrighteousness: the vice list and God's righteous decree (Romans 1:29–32)

• SaysThe depraved mind produces a list of some twenty-one vices, many of them sins of everyday life (1:29–31).
• ImpliesThe list touches neighbors, family, and God, and its ordinary items bring every reader within reach (2:1).
• SaysThe text printed lacks πορνείᾳ (1:29) and ἀσπόνδους (1:31), which Byz/TR add; the argument is unaffected.
• SaysKnowing God's righteous decree that such things deserve death, they do them and approve of those who practice them (1:32).
• Implies'Worthy of death' is God's judgment (6:23), not a civil penalty; approval of others is the final step of the decline.
• UncertainWhether 'worthy of death' echoes Lev 20:13.
• ImpliesThe section closes without hope on purpose; 2:1 turns the verdict on the one who judges, and 3:21–26 answers 1:18 with 1:17.

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