Commentary · ✓ Approved

Romans 1:1–32: The Gospel of God's Righteousness and the Revelation of His Wrath

Certainty Says Implies Uncertain

Introduction: author, setting, purpose, and frame

Says Paul writes the letter (1:1) "to all in Rome who are loved by God and called to be saints" (1:7, BSB). He has often planned to visit and has been prevented (1:10–13; 15:22). He is about to take the gift of the churches of Macedonia and Achaia to Jerusalem, and then hopes to see the Roman believers on his way to Spain (15:23–28).

Implies He writes from Corinth, around AD 56–57. Phoebe of Cenchreae, Corinth's eastern harbor, is commended and probably carried the letter (16:1–2). Gaius, who hosted Paul and the whole church, and Erastus, the city treasurer, send greetings (16:23; cf. 1 Cor 1:14). And Acts places a three-month stay in Greece just before the journey to Jerusalem (Acts 20:2–3). Gallio's proconsulship (about AD 51–52) anchors the chronology. The place is well supported, but the exact year can only be fixed within a year or two (note.historical.Rom.1.1-Rom.1.32.date-place).

Implies The church was mixed, with Gentile believers in the majority. Paul counts his readers "among" the nations (1:5–6) and hopes for a harvest among them "as among the other Gentiles" (1:13), yet he greets Jewish believers by name (16:3–16). Suetonius reports that Claudius expelled Jews from Rome over disturbances "at the instigation of Chrestus" (Claud. 25.4). If Jewish believers left and returned after AD 54 (Prisca and Aquila are back by 16:3; cf. Acts 18:2), this history would explain why Paul addresses Gentiles directly and urges mutual welcome in 14:1–15:13 (note.historical.Rom.1.1-Rom.1.32.roman-church).

Uncertain Paul's purpose. The letter introduces his gospel to a church he did not found, to win its support for the mission to Spain (15:20–24; note.historical.Rom.1.1-Rom.1.32.travel-plans). It also addresses Jew–Gentile relations in the church (14:1–15:13) and prepares for his visit to Jerusalem (15:30–31). Careful interpreters weigh these aims differently. The team holds that they work together, with the exposition of the gospel serving all three.

Place of the chapter. Romans 1:1–15 is the letter opening: an expanded greeting (1:1–7) and a thanksgiving with Paul's travel plans (1:8–15). Romans 1:16–17 states the theme of the letter: the gospel is God's power for salvation, because in it the righteousness of God is revealed by faith. With 1:18 the argument turns to why that gospel is needed. God's wrath is revealed against all ungodliness, and 1:18–3:20 brings Gentile and Jew alike under sin (3:9, 19–20, 23) before 3:21–26 takes up "the righteousness of God" again.

Text. The Greek running text is SBLGNT with the team's unit-by-unit decisions, and the English display text is the BSB. Each variant record that bears on the chapter is shown in a textual box generated from that record. Minor units that do not affect the meaning share one compact "Minor variants" box after the notes on 1:29–32 (STYLE_GUIDE L19).

Note ID: note.exegetical.Rom.1.1-Rom.1.32.introduction

Romans 1:1–7: Paul, the gospel of God, and the Son

1 Paul, a servant of Christ Jesus, called to be an apostle, and set apart for the gospel of God— 2 the gospel He promised beforehand through His prophets in the Holy Scriptures, 3 regarding His Son, who was a descendant of David according to the flesh, 4 and who through the Spirit of holiness was declared with power to be the Son of God by His resurrection from the dead: Jesus Christ our Lord. 5 Through Him and on behalf of His name, we received grace and apostleship to call all those among the Gentiles to the obedience that comes from faith. 6 And you also are among those who are called to belong to Jesus Christ. 7 To all in Rome who are loved by God and called to be saints: Grace and peace to you from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ. (BSB)

Paul expands the usual letter opening ("A to B, greeting") far beyond its normal length. Before he names the addressees, he defines his commission, the gospel's pedigree in Scripture, its content, and its goal.

Says Paul calls himself δοῦλος Χριστοῦ Ἰησοῦ (doulos Christou Iēsou, "a servant of Christ Jesus"), κλητὸς ἀπόστολος (klētos apostolos, "called to be an apostle"), and ἀφωρισμένος εἰς εὐαγγέλιον θεοῦ (aphōrismenos eis euangelion theou, "set apart for the gospel of God," 1:1). Implies The word δοῦλος has two sides. In Paul's world it meant ownership and total obligation, so he belongs wholly to Christ. In the LXX "servant of the Lord" is also a title of honor for Moses, David, and the prophets (2 Kgdms 7:5). Paul puts Christ Jesus where the LXX has the Lord (note.language.Rom.1.1.doulos; lex.G1401). Implies The two passives, "called" and "set apart," make God the one who commissions. Paul's office is not self-appointed (compare Gal 1:1, 15; note.language.Rom.1.1.apostolos; lex.G652). Uncertain A pun on "Pharisee" ("separated") in ἀφωρισμένος has been suggested, but it cannot be shown from the text, and the commentary does not build on it.

Says God "promised beforehand" this gospel "through His prophets in the Holy Scriptures" (1:2, BSB). The gospel is "of God" (1:1) and "regarding His Son" (περὶ τοῦ υἱοῦ αὐτοῦ, 1:3). Implies "Of God" names the gospel's source. Its content is the Son. The prophets' "good news" of God's reign and return to Zion (Isa 40:9; 52:7 LXX, εὐαγγελίζομαι; cf. Rom 10:15) is the primary background (note.language.Rom.1.1.euangelion; lex.G2098). Imperial "good tidings" and the title "son of a god" were also current in Paul's world (the Priene calendar inscription; coins of Octavian). Whether Paul intended a challenge to Caesar is debated, but the text grounds both terms in Scripture's promise (note.historical.Rom.1.1-Rom.1.32.son-of-god-euangelion).

Says The gospel concerns the Son. He came from the seed of David according to the flesh and was appointed Son of God in power according to the Spirit of holiness by the resurrection of the dead: "Jesus Christ our Lord" (1:3–4). These two clauses are treated in the next section.

Says Through him Paul has received "grace and apostleship" (χάριν καὶ ἀποστολήν) "for the obedience of faith among all the nations, for his name's sake" (1:5). The readers are among those nations, "called to belong to Jesus Christ" (1:6). They are "loved by God" and "called to be saints" (κλητοῖς ἁγίοις, 1:7). Implies The same word, κλητός (klētos, "called"), describes Paul (1:1) and the Romans (1:6–7). In both cases calling is God's act, and the readers' holiness is a status given by that call, not their own achievement (note.language.Rom.1.1.apostolos).

Says The greeting is "Grace and peace to you from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ" (1:7, BSB). Implies One preposition, ἀπό, governs both persons, so Jesus is named with the Father as the source of divine grace and peace. Paul also gives the Lord's name to Jesus as κύριος (kyrios, "Lord," 10:9–13, citing Joel 2:32, MT 3:5). Together these imply his deity. No mere creature is named in a greeting as a source of grace.

Says The addressees are "all in Rome" (1:7). The variant record shows that G (Boernerianus) and its Latin column g omit "in Rome" here and at 1:15. The team prints ἐν Ῥώμῃ with high confidence (var.Rom.1.7.en-rome; var.Rom.1.15.tois-en-rome). In the order of Paul's titles in 1:1, the team prints SBLGNT's Χριστοῦ Ἰησοῦ with low confidence. 𝔓¹⁰, perhaps the earliest witness, and B read this order, while ℵ A and the Byzantine tradition read Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ. The sense is the same either way (var.Rom.1.1.christou-iesou).

Textual: Romans 1:1 (variant unit: Χριστοῦ Ἰησοῦ / Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ) - In text: δοῦλος Χριστοῦ Ἰησοῦ (doulos Christou Iēsou, "a slave of Christ Jesus"): 𝔓¹⁰, B, vgᵃᵐ, vgᶠᵘ, arm, Origen, Ambrosiaster, Augustine. = SBLGNT, NA28, Treg - Alternative: δοῦλος Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ (doulos Iēsou Christou, "a slave of Jesus Christ"): ℵ, A, E, G, K, L, P, vgᶜˡᵉ, syrˢᶜʰ, syrᵖ, cop, aeth, Irenaeus (Lat.), Origen (Lat.). = Byz, TR, WH - Evidence (from the variant record):

Editions (checked 2026-10-28): SBLGNT, RP2018, TR (local files); WH/Treg/NA28 from the SBLGNT apparatus; NA28 by reference only. Sigla: as in STYLE_GUIDE §2.3. Minuscules are Gregory–Aland numbers, with Tischendorf's Pauline number once in parentheses ("Tisch."); * = first hand, superscript ᶜ = a later corrector; full key in src.tischendorf-8. Tischendorf names mainly dissenting witnesses, so some majuscules on the other side are inferred from his silence.

SBLGNT prints Χριστοῦ Ἰησοῦ; RP2018 and TR read Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ, and the SBLGNT apparatus and TAGNT put WH with them.

Papyrus (P.Oxy. II 209, pp. 8–9 and Plate II, read on the plate): 𝔓¹⁰ reads Χ̅Ρ̅Υ̅ Ι̅Η̅Υ̅, Χριστοῦ Ἰησοῦ. Grenfell and Hunt date it to the first half of the 4th century.

Manuscripts (Tischendorf 8, vol. 2 (1872), p. 363; patristic attributions are his): Χριστοῦ Ἰησοῦ: B, the Vulgate codices am and fu, arm, Origen, Ambrosiaster, Augustine. Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ: ℵ A E G K L P and nearly all others, Irenaeus and Origen in Latin. D's Greek is lost for 1:1–7. Tischendorf prints Χριστοῦ Ἰησοῦ against most witnesses, because Paul's salutations elsewhere (1–2 Cor, Eph, Phil, Col, 1–2 Tim) have that order.

Internal: either order could arise by assimilation: to the common Ἰησοῦς Χριστός, or to Paul's usual salutation order. - Decision: Print SBLGNT's Χριστοῦ Ἰησοῦ, with low confidence. 𝔓¹⁰ (perhaps the earliest witness) and B read Χριστοῦ Ἰησοῦ, with Origen's Greek and the Vulgate codices am and fu; ℵ A and the Byzantine tradition (= RP, TR, WH) support Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ. ℵ and B are both fourth-century, breadth favors Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ, and internal evidence cuts both ways. Because the evidence does not clearly overturn the base text, the team keeps SBLGNT's order (D⁷) and states the reason, per §7. Either order has the same meaning. Confidence low. - Variant record: var.Rom.1.1.christou-iesou.

Textual: Romans 1:7 (variant unit: ἐν Ῥώμῃ ἀγαπητοῖς θεοῦ / ἐν ἀγάπῃ θεοῦ (without ἐν Ῥώμῃ) / without ἀγαπητοῖς θεοῦ) - In text: πᾶσιν τοῖς οὖσιν ἐν Ῥώμῃ ἀγαπητοῖς θεοῦ (pasin tois ousin en Rhōmē agapētois theou, "to all who are in Rome, loved by God"): ℵ, A, B, C, K, L, P, 𝔐, vgᶜˡᵉ, vgᶠᵘ, Origen, Chrysostom, Ambrosiaster (ed.), Augustine. = SBLGNT, NA28, Byz, TR, WH, Treg - Alternative 1: πᾶσιν τοῖς οὖσιν ἐν ἀγάπῃ θεοῦ (pasin tois ousin en agapē theou, "to all who are in the love of God (no place named)"): G, itᵍ. - Alternative 2: ἐν Ῥώμῃ ἐν ἀγάπῃ θεοῦ (retroverted; Latin only: Romae in caritate dei) (en Rhōmē en agapē theou, "in Rome, in the love of God"): itᵈ*, vgᵃᵐ, vgᶠᵘ*, Ambrosiaster (one manuscript). - Alternative 3: πᾶσιν τοῖς οὖσιν ἐν Ῥώμῃ κλητοῖς ἁγίοις (without ἀγαπητοῖς θεοῦ) (pasin tois ousin en Rhōmē klētois hagiois, "to all who are in Rome, called saints"): E, 1915 (Tisch. 82), itᵉ. - Evidence** (from the variant record):

All print ἐν Ῥώμῃ ἀγαπητοῖς θεοῦ.

Manuscripts (Tischendorf 8, vol. 2 (1872), p. 364): G and its Latin g omit ἐν Ῥώμῃ and read ἐν ἀγάπῃ θεοῦ. The Latin d* (D's Greek is lost here), am, fu* and one Ambrosiaster manuscript read in caritate dei but keep Romae. E, minuscule 1915 and e omit ἀγαπητοῖς θεοῦ altogether. Tischendorf thinks E's scribe took a mark set against in caritate dei in d for a deletion sign. He cites Origen (Greek, and Rufinus's Latin), Chrysostom, the Ambrosiaster edition and Augustine for ἐν Ῥώμῃ.

A scholion in minuscule 1908 (Tisch. 47) says that "he mentions ἐν Ῥώμῃ neither in the exposition nor in the text" (τὸ ἐν Ῥώμῃ οὔτε ἐν τῇ ἐξηγήσει οὔτε ἐν τῷ ῥητῷ μνημονεύει). Tischendorf says it is unclear whom this means.

Modern apparatuses (NA28; Metzger, by reference, not checked) link such marginal notes, in 1739 and 1908, to Origen's commentary and cite them for the omission. Tischendorf's report does not show Ambrosiaster omitting ἐν Ῥώμῃ. The omission in G matches 1:15 (var.Rom.1.15.tois-en-rome) and probably reflects a copy made for general circulation (Metzger, by reference). - Decision: Print ἐν Ῥώμῃ ἀγαπητοῖς θεοῦ with high confidence. All editions agree; G's form is a later generalizing text. No Byz/TR divergence. Confidence high. - Says/Implies: The letter is addressed to believers in Rome. The reading without "in Rome" (G and its Latin column g) generalizes the address, which fits later use of the letter beyond Rome. The omission of "loved by God" in E, 1915 and e leaves the place name intact. - Variant record: var.Rom.1.7.en-rome.

Note ID: note.exegetical.Rom.1.1-Rom.1.7.gospel-concerning-the-son

Romans 1:3–4: Seed of David, Son of God in power

Says The gospel is "regarding His Son" (περὶ τοῦ υἱοῦ αὐτοῦ). Two participial clauses then describe him, each with a κατά phrase (note.language.Rom.1.3.kata-sarka-pneuma): - τοῦ γενομένου ἐκ σπέρματος Δαυὶδ κατὰ σάρκα, "who came from the seed of David according to the flesh" (1:3); - τοῦ ὁρισθέντος υἱοῦ θεοῦ ἐν δυνάμει κατὰ πνεῦμα ἁγιωσύνης ἐξ ἀναστάσεως νεκρῶν, "who was appointed Son of God in power according to the Spirit of holiness by the resurrection of the dead" (1:4).

Implies The Son exists as Son before both clauses. Paul names him "His Son" first, and only then says he "came from" David's line. Romans 1:4 therefore does not teach that Jesus became God's Son at the resurrection. It describes his installation, as the Son already, in messianic power and rule. Compare 8:3, 32 and Gal 4:4, where the Father sends or gives up his own Son (note.language.Rom.1.4.horisthentos; note.language.Rom.1.4.ps-2-7-my-son).

Says God promised David, "I will raise up your descendant after you" (2 Sam 7:12, BSB; LXX ἀναστήσω τὸ σπέρμα σου), promised to "establish the throne of his kingdom forever" (7:13), and said, "I will be his Father, and he will be My son" (7:14). Psalm 2:7 applies the father–son language to the Davidic king on the day of his enthronement: "You are My Son; today I have become Your Father" (BSB; note.language.Rom.1.3.seed-son-throne; note.language.Rom.1.4.ps-2-7-my-son; xref.Rom.1.3.2Sam.7.12.heb; xref.Rom.1.4.2Sam.7.14.heb; xref.Rom.1.3.2Sam.7.16.heb; xref.Rom.1.4.Ps.2.7.heb). Implies "From the seed of David" presents Jesus as the promised heir of 2 Sam 7, and the resurrection as his enthronement in the sense of Ps 2. Paul applies Ps 2:7 to the resurrection in Acts 13:33. The "forever" of the promise reached beyond Solomon, and the Psalms and Prophets carried that hope forward (Ps 89; Isa 9:6–7, MT 9:5–6; Jer 23:5). Rom 15:12 (Isa 11:10, "the Root of Jesse") closes the letter's argument on the same note. An echo of ἀναστήσω in ἀναστάσεως is possible, but in 2 Sam 7 the verb means "set up," so the commentary gives it little weight.

Says ὁρισθέντος (horisthentos) is the aorist passive participle of ὁρίζω. In its other New Testament uses the verb means "determine, appoint" (Acts 10:42; 17:31). Uncertain Whether to render it "appointed" or "declared" (BSB). The verb's usage favors "appointed, installed." "Declared" is a defensible rendering of the same idea, since the Son was installed in a position, not made Son (note.language.Rom.1.4.horisthentos; lex.G3724).

Uncertain What ἐν δυνάμει ("in power") modifies. It may go with "Son of God," giving "Son-of-God-in-power," or with the participle, giving "powerfully declared." The word order and the contrast with the Son's earthly state "according to the flesh" favor the first, and the team prefers it (note.language.Rom.1.4.horisthentos).

Uncertain The sense of κατὰ σάρκα / κατὰ πνεῦμα ἁγιωσύνης. There are three main construals. 1. Two natures, human and divine. This is the patristic and Reformation reading. It is true theology, but "flesh and spirit" is not Paul's usual way of speaking of Christ's deity. 2. Two eras or orders. The Son lived in the order of the flesh before the resurrection and is exalted in the order of the Spirit after it (compare 8:4–9 and Gal 4:29). This line of reading was developed by Vos and Murray (src.vos-eschatological-spirit; src.murray-romans). 3. The Holy Spirit as agent. πνεῦμα ἁγιωσύνης (pneuma hagiōsynēs) would then be a Semitic-style way of saying "Holy Spirit."

The team holds (2) and (3) together: the Spirit who raised Jesus (8:11) installs him in power. This does not deny (1), and all three affirm the Son's deity. The Hebrew background supports (3). Isa 63:10–11 speaks of רוּחַ קָדְשׁוֹ (ruakh qodsho, "his Holy Spirit," literally "the spirit of his holiness"), and Ps 51:11 (MT 51:13; LXX 50:13) of "your Holy Spirit," in the same construct idiom. The LXX renders both with the adjective ἅγιον, so Paul's genitive ἁγιωσύνης stands closer to the Hebrew wording (note.language.Rom.1.4.ruach-qodesh; xref.Rom.1.4.Isa.63.10.heb; xref.Rom.1.4.Ps.51.11.heb; lex.G42).

Says ἐξ ἀναστάσεως νεκρῶν reads literally "from (the) resurrection of the dead." Implies ἐξ is both temporal ("from the time of") and causal ("on the basis of"). The plural νεκρῶν may hint that Jesus' resurrection begins the resurrection of the dead (compare 1 Cor 15:20–23), but the commentary does not press this.

Uncertain Whether 1:3–4 quotes an earlier confession. The parallel clauses and some unusual vocabulary have suggested this to some interpreters. Either way Paul makes the words his own, and they are his teaching.

Note ID: note.exegetical.Rom.1.3-Rom.1.4.seed-of-david-son-in-power

Romans 1:5–6: Grace, apostleship, and the obedience of faith

Says Paul's apostleship is εἰς ὑπακοὴν πίστεως ἐν πᾶσιν τοῖς ἔθνεσιν (eis hypakoēn pisteōs en pasin tois ethnesin, "for the obedience of faith among all the nations"), and it serves "His name" (1:5). The BSB renders the phrase "to call all those among the Gentiles to the obedience that comes from faith."

Uncertain The kind of genitive in ὑπακοὴ πίστεως (note.language.Rom.1.5.hypakoe-pisteos; lex.G5218): 1. Source: obedience that springs from faith (BSB). 2. Apposition: obedience that consists in faith, so that believing the gospel is itself obeying God. Compare 10:16, where "not all obeyed (ὑπήκουσαν) the gospel" (literal) is paired with Isaiah's "who has believed our message?" 3. Objective: obedience to "the faith" as a body of teaching. This is unlikely, because πίστεως has no article.

The team prefers the source reading, with apposition close behind. The two overlap. Faith submits to God's word, and obedience flows from faith.

Implies On any reading, the phrase does not make obedience a ground of justification. Paul goes on to say that a person is justified by faith apart from works of the law (3:28), and that faith is credited as righteousness to "the one who does not work, but believes in Him who justifies the ungodly" (4:5, BSB). Faith and obedience are distinct but never separated (6:16–17; 15:18).

Says The same phrase recurs at Rom 16:26, in the closing doxology (Rom 16:25–27): "in order to lead all nations to the obedience that comes from faith" (BSB). Its place in the letter differs by edition. RP prints the doxology after 14:23, and SBLGNT keeps it out of its running text and gives it only in its apparatus. A later Romans 16 package will treat the unit fully (STYLE_GUIDE L18). Implies The repetition frames the whole letter. Paul's mission, and the letter that sets it out, aim at the obedience of faith among all nations.

Says The readers are among these nations: "And you also are among those who are called to belong to Jesus Christ" (1:6, BSB).

Note ID: note.exegetical.Rom.1.5.obedience-of-faith

Romans 1:8–15: Thanksgiving, prayer, and the obligation to preach

8 First, I thank my God through Jesus Christ for all of you, because your faith is being proclaimed all over the world. 9 God, whom I serve with my spirit in preaching the gospel of His Son, is my witness how constantly I remember you 10 in my prayers at all times, asking that now at last by God’s will I may succeed in coming to you. 11 For I long to see you so that I may impart to you some spiritual gift to strengthen you, 12 that is, that you and I may be mutually encouraged by each other’s faith. 13 I do not want you to be unaware, brothers, how often I planned to come to you (but have been prevented from visiting until now), in order that I might have a harvest among you, just as I have had among the other Gentiles. 14 I am obligated both to Greeks and non-Greeks, both to the wise and the foolish. 15 That is why I am so eager to preach the gospel also to you who are in Rome. (BSB)

Says Paul thanks God "through Jesus Christ" for all the Roman believers, because their faith is "being proclaimed all over the world" (1:8, BSB). He calls God, "whom I serve with my spirit in preaching the gospel of His Son," as his witness that he prays for them constantly (1:9). He prays that he may at last come to them (1:10). Implies "All over the world" is a natural hyperbole for the whole Christian network of the empire, and it fits a church at the capital. The verb λατρεύω, "serve," which the LXX uses for priestly and cultic service, recasts Paul's preaching as worship (compare 15:16). Whether he wrote περί or ὑπέρ ("for," 1:8) makes no difference to the sense (var.Rom.1.8.peri-hyper).

Says Paul wants to share "some spiritual gift" to strengthen them (1:11). He then corrects himself at once: "that is, that you and I may be mutually encouraged by each other's faith" (1:12, BSB). Implies The correction is tactful. Paul did not found this church. He presents his visit as mutual blessing, not inspection, which agrees with his rule of not "building on someone else's foundation" (15:20, BSB).

Says He has often planned to come but has been "prevented" (ἐκωλύθην, 1:13), "in order that I might have a harvest among you, just as I have had among the other Gentiles" (BSB). In 15:22 he uses a different but synonymous verb (ἐνεκοπτόμην, "I have been hindered"). There he explains that the hindrance was his unfinished work from Jerusalem to Illyricum (15:19–23; note.historical.Rom.1.1-Rom.1.32.travel-plans). The word order of τινὰ καρπόν, "some fruit," has no effect on the meaning (var.Rom.1.13.tina-karpon).

Says "I am obligated" (ὀφειλέτης εἰμί, "I am a debtor") "both to Greeks and to barbarians, both to the wise and to the foolish" (1:14, literal; BSB "non-Greeks"). So he is eager to preach the gospel "also to you who are in Rome" (1:15). Implies "Greeks and barbarians" divides humanity by language and culture from the Greek point of view. "Wise and foolish" divides it by education. Together they mean everyone, with no distinction (note.historical.Rom.1.1-Rom.1.32.greeks-barbarians). Paul's debt does not arise from anything the nations gave him. It is the trust laid on him by Christ (1 Cor 9:16–17). Implies "To preach the gospel … to you" (1:15), addressed to believers, shows that for Paul the gospel is not only the entry message. It is the whole message the church goes on to learn, as the letter itself shows. Romans 1:15 and 1:7 are the two places where some witnesses lack "in Rome." The team prints the phrase in both places with high confidence (var.Rom.1.15.tois-en-rome; var.Rom.1.7.en-rome).

Textual: Romans 1:15 (variant unit: ὑμῖν τοῖς ἐν Ῥώμῃ / ὑμῖν (τοῖς ἐν Ῥώμῃ omitted)) - In text: καὶ ὑμῖν τοῖς ἐν Ῥώμῃ εὐαγγελίσασθαι (kai hymin tois en Rhōmē euangelisasthai, "to preach the gospel also to you who are in Rome"): ℵ, A, B, C, D, K, L, P, 𝔐, vg. = SBLGNT, NA28, Byz, TR, WH, Treg - Alternative: καὶ ὑμῖν εὐαγγελίσασθαι (kai hymin euangelisasthai, "to preach the gospel also to you"): G, itᵍ. - Evidence (from the variant record):

All print τοῖς ἐν Ῥώμῃ.

Manuscripts (Tischendorf 8, vol. 2 (1872), p. 365): "τοῖς ἐν Ῥώμῃ … G g om. Cf supra ad v. 7." Tischendorf names no other dissenting witness.

Internal: the omission travels with G's omission of ἐν Ῥώμῃ at 1:7 (var.Rom.1.7.en-rome). Taken together, the two look like a deliberate removal of the address to make the letter general. A scribe would have no reason to add the place name in both verses. - Decision: Print τοῖς ἐν Ῥώμῃ with high confidence. All editions agree; there is no Byz/TR divergence. Confidence high. - Says/Implies: Paul is eager to preach the gospel to believers in Rome (see 1:7). - Variant record: var.Rom.1.15.tois-en-rome.

Note ID: note.exegetical.Rom.1.8-Rom.1.15.thanksgiving-and-travel

Romans 1:16–17: The theme of the letter

16 I am not ashamed of the gospel, because it is the power of God for salvation to everyone who believes, first to the Jew, then to the Greek. 17 For the gospel reveals the righteousness of God that comes by faith from start to finish, just as it is written: “The righteous will live by faith.” (BSB)

Says The verse begins "For" (γάρ). Paul is eager to preach in Rome "because" he is not ashamed of the gospel, and he is not ashamed of it because it is "the power of God for salvation to everyone who believes, first to the Jew, then to the Greek" (1:16, BSB). It is that power because in it "the righteousness of God is revealed from faith to faith" (1:17). That in turn is "just as it is written: 'The righteous will live by faith'" (1:17). Implies Each clause gives the reason for the one before it. This chain of γάρ clauses makes 1:16–17 the theme of the letter, and the argument of chapters 1–11 unfolds its terms: power, salvation, everyone who believes, Jew and Greek, righteousness, faith, and life.

Implies "Not ashamed" is litotes, an understatement that means "I boldly confess." It also faces a real social pressure. A crucified Messiah was "foolishness" to Greeks (1 Cor 1:18–25), and Jesus warned of being ashamed of him (Mark 8:38).

Says The gospel is δύναμις θεοῦ (dynamis theou, "God's power," 1:16). Implies The gospel does not merely describe salvation. Through it God acts to save (compare 1 Cor 1:18; 1 Thess 1:5). Says Salvation is "to everyone who believes," "to the Jew first and also to the Greek." Implies "First" (πρῶτον) is a historical and covenant priority, and it does not make Jews more or less saved. The promises came first to Israel (3:1–2; 9:4–5; 11:16–18). The same condition, faith, applies to all with "no distinction" (3:22; 10:12). The team prints πρῶτον with high confidence (var.Rom.1.16.proton). Byz and TR read "the gospel of Christ" in 1:16, but the gospel in view is the same (var.Rom.1.16.tou-christou).

Says In the gospel "the righteousness of God is revealed" (δικαιοσύνη θεοῦ ἀποκαλύπτεται, 1:17). The present tense matches "the wrath of God is revealed" in 1:18 (note.language.Rom.1.17.apokalyptetai; lex.G601). Implies Two revelations stand side by side. God's righteousness is revealed in the gospel for salvation, and his wrath is revealed against ungodliness. The second explains why the first is needed (1:18; see the next section). The sense of "righteousness of God," of "from faith to faith," and of the Habakkuk citation are treated in the next three notes.

Says The citation of Hab 2:4 reads Ὁ δὲ δίκαιος ἐκ πίστεως ζήσεται, with no pronoun. All editions agree, and the readings with μου assimilate to the LXX (var.Rom.1.17.ho-dikaios-mou).

Textual: Romans 1:16 (variant unit: τὸ εὐαγγέλιον / τὸ εὐαγγέλιον τοῦ Χριστοῦ) - In text: οὐ γὰρ ἐπαισχύνομαι τὸ εὐαγγέλιον (ou gar epaischynomai to euangelion, "for I am not ashamed of the gospel"): ℵ, A, B, C, D*, E, G, itᵈ, itᵉ, itᵍ, vg, syrˢᶜʰ, syrᵖ, cop, arm, aeth, Origen, Eusebius, Didymus, Basil, Cyril of Alexandria, Tertullian, Hilary. = SBLGNT, NA28, WH, Treg - Alternative: οὐ γὰρ ἐπαισχύνομαι τὸ εὐαγγέλιον τοῦ Χριστοῦ (ou gar epaischynomai to euangelion tou Christou, "for I am not ashamed of the gospel of Christ"): Dᶜ, K, L, P, 𝔐, Theophylact, Oecumenius. = Byz, TR - Evidence (from the variant record):

SBLGNT omits τοῦ Χριστοῦ; RP2018 and TR add it. TAGNT marks the words as TR+Byz only.

Manuscripts (Tischendorf 8, vol. 2 (1872), p. 366): without the addition: ℵ A B C D* E G and several minuscules, the Latin, both Syriac versions, the Coptic, Armenian and Ethiopic, Origen, Eusebius, Didymus, Basil, Cyril, Tertullian (Marc. 5.13), Hilary. With τοῦ Χριστοῦ: Dᶜ K L P and most later manuscripts, Theophylact, Oecumenius.

Internal: the addition is a natural expansion. Compare εὐαγγέλιον θεοῦ in 1:1 and τοῦ υἱοῦ αὐτοῦ in 1:9. - Decision: Print τὸ εὐαγγέλιον without τοῦ Χριστοῦ, with high confidence. Byz and TR add it. The gospel in view is the same either way (1:1–4, 9). Confidence high. - Variant record: var.Rom.1.16.tou-christou.

Textual: Romans 1:16 (variant unit: Ἰουδαίῳ τε πρῶτον / Ἰουδαίῳ τε (πρῶτον omitted)) - In text: Ἰουδαίῳ τε πρῶτον καὶ Ἕλληνι (Ioudaiō te prōton kai Hellēni, "to the Jew first and also to the Greek"): ℵ, A, C, D, E, K, L, P, 𝔐, itᵈ, itᵉ, vg, syrˢᶜʰ, syrᵖ, cop, arm, aeth, Origen, Eusebius, Didymus, Chrysostom. = SBLGNT, NA28, Byz, TR, WH, Treg - Alternative: Ἰουδαίῳ τε καὶ Ἕλληνι (Ioudaiō te kai Hellēni, "to Jew and Greek alike"): B, G, itᵍ, Tertullian (Marc. 5.13). - Evidence (from the variant record):

All print πρῶτον. Lachmann bracketed it (as Tischendorf reports).

Manuscripts (Tischendorf 8, vol. 2 (1872), p. 366): πρῶτον: ℵ A C D E K L P and apparently all others, the Latin d e vg, both Syriac versions, the Coptic, Armenian and Ethiopic, Origen (Rufinus: the Jews are rightly placed "even before the Greeks"), Eusebius, Didymus, Chrysostom. Omitted: B G g, and Tertullian, Marc. 5.13, which cites Marcion's text. Tischendorf's "cop" is the Bohairic; modern apparatuses (by reference, not checked) add the Sahidic to the omission.

Internal: πρῶτον is Pauline (2:9–10, the same phrase twice). It may have been dropped because it seemed to qualify the equality of Jew and Greek (3:22; 10:12). Whether the omission in Tertullian's citation reflects Marcion's editing is unclear. - Decision: Print πρῶτον with high confidence. It has early and broad support, and all editions agree. B and G are the main witnesses against it. Confidence high. - Says/Implies: The gospel is God's power for salvation to everyone who believes, to the Jew first in covenant priority and also to the Greek (3:1–2; 9:4–5). - Variant record: var.Rom.1.16.proton.

Textual: Romans 1:17 (variant unit: Ὁ δὲ δίκαιος ἐκ πίστεως / + μου (as in LXX forms of Hab 2:4)) - In text: Ὁ δὲ δίκαιος ἐκ πίστεως ζήσεται (ho de dikaios ek pisteōs zēsetai, "the righteous by faith will live"): ℵ, A, B, D, G, K, L, P, 𝔐, Irenaeus (Lat.), Clement of Alexandria, Didymus. = SBLGNT, NA28, Byz, TR, WH, Treg - Alternative 1: Ὁ δὲ δίκαιός μου ἐκ πίστεως ζήσεται (ho de dikaios mou ek pisteōs zēsetai, "my righteous one will live by faith"): C*, vgᵐˢˢ. - Alternative 2: Ὁ δὲ δίκαιος ἐκ πίστεώς μου ζήσεται (ho de dikaios ek pisteōs mou zēsetai, "the righteous will live by my faithfulness"): syrᵖ, Origen (Lat.), Jerome (Comm. Hab.). - Evidence (from the variant record):

All print the citation without μου.

Manuscripts (Tischendorf 8, vol. 2 (1872), p. 366): C* (first hand only) and some Vulgate manuscripts add μου after δίκαιος. Tischendorf compares the LXX of codex A, which adds μου after δίκαιος (Swete's apparatus). Syrp, Origen in Rufinus's Latin, and Jerome (on Habakkuk) put μου after πίστεως, which Tischendorf compares with the LXX edition and ℵ B. Swete's LXX (vol. 3, p. 59; wording checked on the scan, archive.org theoldtestamenti03swetuoft, leaf 83) prints ὁ δὲ δίκαιος ἐκ πίστεώς μου ζήσεται, and his apparatus has "δικαιος] + μου A." Jerome explains that Paul followed the LXX because he wrote to Romans, who did not know the Hebrew.

Internal: both additions assimilate Paul's wording to known LXX forms. Paul's μου-less form is also his text at Gal 3:11. See note.language.Rom.1.17.hab-2-4-forms and note.textual.Rom.1.17.hab-2-4-pronoun. - Decision: Print Ὁ δὲ δίκαιος ἐκ πίστεως ζήσεται with high confidence. All editions agree, and the μου readings assimilate to the LXX. Confidence high. - Says/Implies: Paul's form omits both the MT's "his" and the LXX's "my," so that the citation centers on faith (note.language.Rom.1.17.hab-2-4-forms). - Variant record: var.Rom.1.17.ho-dikaios-mou.

Note ID: note.exegetical.Rom.1.16-Rom.1.17.thesis

Romans 1:17: "The righteousness of God"

The phrase δικαιοσύνη θεοῦ (dikaiosynē theou, "righteousness of God") is the most debated phrase in the letter. The commentary takes it in three steps, and its labels follow how certain each step is (note.language.Rom.1.17.dikaiosyne-theou; lex.G1343).

Says God's righteousness "is revealed" in the gospel (1:17). It is revealed "from faith to faith" and is linked to the righteous person living "by faith" (Hab 2:4). It belongs to a gospel that is "the power of God for salvation" (1:16).

Implies At 1:17 the phrase names God's saving righteousness, which reaches people through faith. It does not name his punitive justice, which is the subject of 1:18, nor the mere fact that God is righteous. The setting requires a righteousness that saves and is received by believing. The Old Testament prepares for this usage. God's "righteousness" stands parallel to his "salvation" in the Psalms and Isaiah: "The Lord has proclaimed His salvation and revealed His righteousness to the nations" (Ps 98:2, BSB; LXX 97:2, with the same verb ἀποκαλύπτω; vmap.Ps.98.2.LXX-Swete.lxx-swete; compare Isa 46:13; 51:5–8). Augustine already read the phrase this way: the righteousness of God is "not that whereby He is Himself righteous, but that with which He endows man when He justifies the ungodly" (Spir. et litt. 9.15; src.npnf1-augustine-spirit-letter). Luther's preface to Romans likewise explains it as the righteousness that counts before God and that God gives through faith (src.luther-preface-romans).

Implies Read with 3:21–26, 10:3, and Phil 3:9, the phrase includes both God's saving action and the righteous status he gives to believers. In 3:21–22 "the righteousness of God has been revealed … through faith in Jesus Christ to all who believe" (BSB). In 3:26 God acts "so as to be just and to justify the one who has faith in Jesus" (BSB). In 10:3 Israel was "ignorant of God's righteousness and sought to establish their own" (BSB). Phil 3:9 contrasts "my own righteousness from the law" with "the righteousness from God on the basis of faith" (BSB; "from God" is ἐκ θεοῦ). The contrast between one's "own" righteousness and God's shows that in these passages God's righteousness is something given to and received by believers, a status before God. The team therefore holds a genitive of source or author, "a righteousness from God," that includes the saving act by which God gives it. Paul does not separate the act from the gift.

Major views, by name. These are reported as interpretations of the phrase, not as the team's own claims. - Attribute. God's own justice or covenant faithfulness. Many interpreters read this sense in 3:5 and 3:25–26, where it is clearly in view. - Gift. A status given by God and received by faith. This was the Reformation reading (Luther; Calvin, Comm. Rom. on 1:17, src.calvin-romans-owen) and is defended in modern form by Westerholm and Moo (src.westerholm-perspectives; src.moo-romans). - Saving power. God's saving power that lays claim to creation. Käsemann proposed this (src.kasemann-romans). - Covenant faithfulness. God's faithfulness to his covenant with Israel and through it to the world. This is the reading of Wright and Dunn (src.wright-nib-romans; src.dunn-wbc-romans). Seifrid argues that "righteousness" in the Hebrew Scriptures is not primarily a covenant term but concerns right order upheld by God as ruler and judge (src.seifrid-christ-our-righteousness).

Uncertain How far "covenant faithfulness" is part of the meaning at 1:17 itself, as distinct from 3:3–5 and 3:25–26. The team's position is that the gift sense is primary at 1:17. God's faithfulness is the ground behind the gift, not the content of the phrase. On the related doctrine of imputation, see note.exegetical.Rom.1.17.imputation.

Note ID: note.exegetical.Rom.1.17.righteousness-of-god

Romans 1:17: "From faith to faith" and Habakkuk 2:4

Says God's righteousness is revealed ἐκ πίστεως εἰς πίστιν (ek pisteōs eis pistin, "from faith to faith," 1:17). Uncertain The sense of the phrase. The main options are these (note.language.Rom.1.17.ek-pisteos-eis-pistin): 1. Intensive. "By faith from start to finish," the BSB rendering (compare ἐκ θανάτου εἰς θάνατον, "from death to death," 2 Cor 2:16). On this reading faith is the only channel of God's righteousness. 2. From God's faithfulness to human faith. 3. From the faith of preachers to the faith of hearers (compare 10:14–17). 4. Growth in faith.

The team prefers (1). It is the simplest reading of the idiom, and it suits the stress on "everyone who believes" (1:16) and on "by faith" in the citation that follows. Option (2) is attractive because of 3:3, but in 1:16–17 every other use of the word is human believing.

Says Paul cites Hab 2:4 in the form Ὁ δὲ δίκαιος ἐκ πίστεως ζήσεται, "The righteous will live by faith" (BSB). Says The Hebrew reads וְצַדִּיק בֶּאֱמוּנָתוֹ יִחְיֶֽה (vetsaddiq be'emunato yikhyeh), "but the righteous by his faithfulness will live." The noun בֶּאֱמוּנָתוֹ is built on emunah, "steadiness, faithfulness, reliance" (note.language.Rom.1.17.hab-2-4-emunah; xref.Rom.1.17.Hab.2.4.heb). The Swete LXX, checked on the scan, reads ὁ δὲ δίκαιος ἐκ πίστεώς μου ζήσεται, "the righteous will live by my faithfulness." Codex A is widely reported to read ὁ δὲ δίκαιός μου ἐκ πίστεως, "my righteous one … by faith" (by reference; not checked against an apparatus); Swete's apparatus records only "δίκαιος] + μου A", and Heb 10:38 follows the order of A (note.language.Rom.1.17.hab-2-4-forms; note.textual.Rom.1.17.hab-2-4-pronoun; xref.Rom.1.17.Heb.10.38.heb). Implies Paul omits the pronoun of both the MT ("his") and the LXX ("my"). This lets the citation focus on faith as the way the righteous person lives. It is not a mistranslation. Faithfulness in the Hebrew is the steady trust that holds to God's word, as the vision of 2:2–3 required ("though it lingers, wait for it," BSB; note.language.Rom.1.17.hab-2-3-vision-waiting; xref.Rom.1.17.Hab.2.3.heb). The proud man who is "not upright" (2:4a) is the contrast. The righteous person depends on God, and that dependence is what Paul calls faith (note.language.Rom.1.17.paul-hab-2-4).

Uncertain Whether "by faith" modifies "the righteous" ("the one who is righteous by faith will live") or "will live" ("the righteous will live by faith"). The Hebrew accents and the LXX connect it with the verb, while Paul's argument, which defines who is righteous (1:17; 3:21–4:25; 5:1), suits the first. Paul's Greek allows both, and the meanings converge: the righteous person lives as a righteous person through faith. The team keeps the BSB rendering.

Implies Paul uses the same verse in Gal 3:11 to show that no one is justified by the law, which points to the same reading of it (xref.Rom.1.17.Gal.3.11.heb). Abraham's "faith credited as righteousness" (Gen 15:6; Rom 4:3) is the pattern behind both passages. The verbs are וְהֶאֱמִן (vehe'emin, "he believed") and וַיַּחְשְׁבֶהָ (vayyakhsheveha, "and he credited it"), and the noun is צְדָקָֽה (tsedaqah, "righteousness") (xref.Rom.1.17.Gen.15.6.heb). The Qumran pesher on Hab 2:4 applies the verse to those who keep the Law and are faithful to the Teacher of Righteousness (1QpHab VII 17–VIII 3), which shows that the verse was already read as a key text, though with a different meaning.

Note ID: note.exegetical.Rom.1.17.ek-pisteos-eis-pistin-hab-2-4

Doctrinal note: Imputation

This short note is linked from 1:17. It does not argue the doctrine from 1:17, which states the theme without explaining how the gift is given. It also does not develop the doctrine fully, which belongs to the Romans 4 and 5 packages.

Implies The righteousness God gives to believers is credited (imputed) to them, not produced in them as the ground of their acceptance. Three passages ground this. - Rom 4:3–8. Abraham "believed God, and it was credited to him as righteousness" (4:3, BSB, citing Gen 15:6). Paul uses the verb λογίζομαι (logizomai, "to credit, count") eleven times in Romans 4. He applies it to "the one who does not work, but believes in Him who justifies the ungodly" (4:5) and to "the man to whom God credits righteousness apart from works" (4:6). With Ps 32:1–2 he pairs this with not counting sin (4:7–8). - Rom 5:18–19. "Through the obedience of the one man the many will be made righteous" (5:19, BSB). The parallel with Adam, through whom "the many were made sinners," ties the many's standing to the act of one representative. - Phil 3:9. Paul wants to be found in Christ "not having my own righteousness from the law, but … the righteousness from God on the basis of faith" (BSB). The righteousness is "from God" and not "my own."

The Reformed confessions state the doctrine this way: God justifies "by imputing the obedience and satisfaction of Christ unto them" (WCF 11.1). The team holds this confession. Uncertain Whether these passages require the imputation of Christ's own active obedience, and not only the counting of faith, or of Christ's death, as righteousness, is debated even among Protestant interpreters. The team holds that 5:18–19, read together with Phil 3:9, supports it, in line with WCF 11.1. The fuller case is left to Romans 4–5.

Note ID: note.exegetical.Rom.1.17.imputation

Romans 1:18: The wrath of God revealed from heaven

18 The wrath of God is being revealed from heaven against all the godlessness and wickedness of men who suppress the truth by their wickedness. (BSB)

Says "For" (γάρ) the wrath of God "is being revealed from heaven against all the godlessness and wickedness of men who suppress the truth by their wickedness" (1:18, BSB). Implies The γάρ joins 1:18 to 1:16–17. The gospel of God's righteousness is needed because all people stand under his wrath, and 1:18–3:20 makes that case. The two revelations (ἀποκαλύπτεται, 1:17 and 1:18) are in the same present tense. Both are taking place now: righteousness "in" the gospel, and wrath "from heaven," that is, from God himself (note.language.Rom.1.17.apokalyptetai).

Says ὀργὴ θεοῦ (orgē theou, "the wrath of God") is God's settled, judicial opposition to sin (note.language.Rom.1.18.orge-theou; lex.G3709). Implies It is personal and is God's own wrath. It is not anger in the human sense of loss of temper, nor an impersonal law of cause and effect. Dodd proposed that wrath in Paul is an impersonal, inevitable process of moral cause and effect rather than an attitude of God (src.dodd-romans-moffatt). Against this, "the wrath of God" names God in parallel with "the righteousness of God" (1:17). The handing over in 1:24, 26, 28 is God's act (ὁ θεός is the subject). And wrath is also a future day (2:5, "the day of wrath," BSB; 5:9). The present revelation of wrath in the "giving over" of 1:24–28 anticipates the final judgment and does not replace it.

Says The wrath is "against all ungodliness (ἀσέβειαν) and unrighteousness (ἀδικίαν) of men." Implies The two nouns are not two classes of people. Ungodliness, the refusal to honor God, is developed in 1:19–23, 25, 28a. Unrighteousness, the wrong done in life and toward others, is developed in 1:24, 26–27, 28b–31. The order matters: the wrong toward God comes first and the moral disorder follows from it.

Says People τὴν ἀλήθειαν ἐν ἀδικίᾳ κατεχόντων (tēn alētheian en adikia katechontōn), they "suppress the truth by their wickedness" (BSB). Implies κατέχω here means "hold down, restrain," not "possess," as the following verses show. They have the truth (1:19–21) and hold it down (note.language.Rom.1.18.katechonton; lex.G2722). The truth about God is present to them. Their guilt is that they refuse it, not that they lack it. "In unrighteousness" can mean either the means ("by") or the sphere ("in"). The two are close, and the team does not decide between them.

Note ID: note.exegetical.Rom.1.18.wrath-revealed

Romans 1:19–21: What may be known about God

19 For what may be known about God is plain to them, because God has made it plain to them. 20 For since the creation of the world God’s invisible qualities, His eternal power and divine nature, have been clearly seen, being understood from His workmanship, so that men are without excuse. 21 For although they knew God, they neither glorified Him as God nor gave thanks to Him, but they became futile in their thinking and darkened in their foolish hearts. (BSB)

Says "What may be known about God is plain to them, because God has made it plain to them" (1:19, BSB). Implies God is the one who reveals here too. His disclosure in creation is his own act, and it is not a human achievement of reason. The word order ὁ θεὸς γάρ makes no difference to the sense (var.Rom.1.19.ho-theos-gar).

Says "For since the creation of the world God's invisible qualities, His eternal power and divine nature, have been clearly seen, being understood from His workmanship" (1:20, BSB). Implies The paradox is deliberate: "invisible things … are seen." The phrase νοούμενα καθορᾶται (nooumena kathoratai) means "being perceived with the mind, they are clearly seen." The seeing is a seeing by the mind, through the things that have been made (note.language.Rom.1.20.nooumena-kathoratai; lex.G2529). What is known is specific and limited: his "eternal power" (ἀΐδιος δύναμις) and his "divine nature" (θειότης, theiotēs, the quality of being divine, not θεότης, "deity"). It does not include his saving purpose, which is made known only in the gospel (1:16–17; 10:14–17). Implies "Since the creation of the world" and "workmanship" (ποιήμασιν) point to Gen 1:1, "In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth." The ordered creation of Gen 1 is the "work" that witnesses to its Maker (compare Ps 19:1–4; Acts 14:17; note.language.Rom.1.20.gen-1-creation-order; xref.Rom.1.20.Gen.1.1.heb).

Says The purpose or result is εἰς τὸ εἶναι αὐτοὺς ἀναπολογήτους, "so that men are without excuse" (1:20, BSB; note.language.Rom.1.20.anapologetous; lex.G379). Implies The revelation in creation is enough to make people accountable but not enough to save them. Romans 2:1 uses the same word for the person who judges others (ἀναπολόγητος), and that passage extends the charge to all.

Says "For although they knew God, they neither glorified Him as God nor gave thanks to Him, but they became futile in their thinking and darkened in their foolish hearts" (1:21, BSB). Implies "Knew" (γνόντες) is real knowledge. It is not saving knowledge, but it is knowledge that is refused. The root sin is a failure of worship and thanks, and the darkening of mind follows it as its consequence. The judgment does not come first and cause the refusal. The verb ἐματαιώθησαν ("became futile") echoes the Old Testament language for idols as "vanity" (Jer 2:5; 2 Kgs 17:15 LXX, ἐπορεύθησαν ὀπίσω τῶν ματαίων καὶ ἐματαιώθησαν).

A parallel argument in the Wisdom of Solomon (non-canonical; cited for historical context only) 13:1–9 is close to Paul: from the good things that are seen, people were not able to know "the One who is" (τὸν ὄντα, 13:1, literal). Paul's charge goes further. Wisdom grants that for such people "the blame is small" (μέμψις ὀλίγη, 13:6, literal), while Paul says that they knew and refused (note.historical.Rom.1.1-Rom.1.32.wisdom-polemic).

Note ID: note.exegetical.Rom.1.19-Rom.1.21.natural-revelation

Doctrinal note: General revelation and natural theology

Says God makes himself known in creation to all people, enough to leave them "without excuse" (1:19–20). There is also a witness of conscience (2:14–15). Implies This general revelation is clear and makes all people accountable. It does not save. People suppress it (1:18, 21), and the gospel alone is "the power of God for salvation" (1:16).

Confessional statement. The Westminster Confession of Faith opens: "Although the light of nature, and the works of creation and providence, do so far manifest the goodness, wisdom, and power of God, as to leave men inexcusable; yet are they not sufficient to give that knowledge of God, and of his will, which is necessary unto salvation" (WCF 1.1). The Belgic Confession calls the universe "a most elegant book," citing Rom 1:20, and says that these things "are sufficient to convince men, and leave them without excuse" (art. 2). Calvin holds that a "sense of Deity" is inscribed on every heart (Inst. 1.3.1). Creation's many "lamps" shine in vain for fallen people (Inst. 1.5.14), who need Scripture as the weak-sighted need "glasses" in order to read (Inst. 1.6.1).

Other readings, stated fairly. Thomas Aquinas cites Rom 1:20 in arguing that God's existence can be demonstrated from his effects (ST I q. 2 a. 2 s.c.; src.aquinas-st-dominican). The First Vatican Council taught that God can be known with certainty by the natural light of human reason through created things, citing the same verse (Dei Filius ch. 2; src.vatican1-dei-filius). In 1934 Karl Barth denied any point of contact for revelation in fallen human nature, while Emil Brunner affirmed a limited one. Their exchange set the modern Protestant terms of the debate (src.barth-brunner-natural-theology).

Implies The text supports a real, objective revelation of God in creation and a real, if suppressed, knowledge of God in all people (1:19–21). Against a strong rejection of natural knowledge, Paul says they "knew God" (1:21). Against a confident natural theology, the knowledge Paul describes ends in idolatry and darkened minds, not a sound path to God (1:21–23). The team holds the Reformed position. General revelation is clear and leaves all without excuse, but it does not save, and it is rightly read only with Scripture.

Note ID: note.exegetical.Rom.1.19-Rom.1.20.natural-theology

Romans 1:22–23, 25: The exchange of glory and truth

22 Although they claimed to be wise, they became fools, 23 and exchanged the glory of the immortal God for images of mortal man and birds and animals and reptiles. (BSB)

Says "Although they claimed to be wise, they became fools, and exchanged the glory of the immortal God for images of mortal man and birds and animals and reptiles" (1:22–23, BSB). Implies The claim to wisdom is part of the folly. The same pattern of wisdom turned to foolishness appears in 1 Cor 1:20–21. The contrast "immortal" (ἀφθάρτου) and "mortal" (φθαρτοῦ) sets out how absurd the exchange is. The living God is traded for copies of things that die.

Says The wording comes from Israel's confession of its own apostasy. Ps 106:20 recalls the calf at Horeb: וַיָּמִירוּ כְּבוֹדָם (vayyamiru … kevodam), "They exchanged their Glory for the image of a grass-eating ox" (BSB). Jer 2:11 says "My people have exchanged their Glory for useless idols" (BSB): הֵמִיר כְּבוֹדוֹ (hemir kevodo). In both verses the "Glory" is God himself. Swete's Ps 105:20 LXX supplies Paul's run of words: ἠλλάξαντο τὴν δόξαν αὐτῶν ἐν ὁμοιώματι μόσχου (note.language.Rom.1.23.exchanged-glory; xref.Rom.1.23.Ps.106.20.heb; xref.Rom.1.23.Jer.2.11.heb; vmap.Ps.106.20.LXX-Swete.lxx-swete). The rabbinic tradition about "scribal corrections" in these two verses is background only, and the commentary's argument does not rest on it. See note.textual.Rom.1.23.tiqqune-soferim.

Implies Paul describes the idolatry of the nations in the words Israel used for its own worst sin. This prepares for 2:1–3:20, where the one who judges is shown to do "the same things" (2:1) and Jew and Greek alike are "under sin" (3:9). Uncertain Whether Paul wants the golden calf itself in view or only borrows the psalm's words. The verbal link is strong either way (note.language.Rom.1.23.exchanged-glory).

Says The phrase ἐν ὁμοιώματι εἰκόνος ("for a likeness of an image") pairs the two words that Deut 4:16 LXX uses in forbidding any idol. That passage forbids any idol "in the likeness of a male or female" (4:16, BSB), of beast, bird, creeping thing, or fish, because at Horeb Israel "saw no form" (4:15; note.language.Rom.1.23.deut-4-likeness; xref.Rom.1.23.Deut.4.15-Deut.4.18.heb). Paul's animal words (πετεινά, τετράποδα, ἑρπετά) are those of Gen 1:20–24 LXX (note.language.Rom.1.23.homoiomati-eikonos; xref.Rom.1.23.Gen.1.20-Gen.1.25.heb). Implies The structure comes from Deut 4 and the vocabulary from Gen 1. The order of creation is reversed. Humanity, made "in our image, after our likeness" to rule the birds, beasts, and creeping things (Gen 1:26, בְּצַלְמֵנוּ כִּדְמוּתֵנוּ, betsalmenu kidmutenu), bows to images of those very creatures (note.language.Rom.1.20.gen-1-creation-order; xref.Rom.1.23.Gen.1.26.heb). Uncertain Whether there is also an allusion to Adam's fall (Gen 3). It is possible, but the wording does not show it.

Says In 1:25 the charge is repeated: "They exchanged the truth of God for a lie, and worshiped and served the creature rather than the Creator, who is forever worthy of praise! Amen" (BSB; "exchanged" is μετήλλαξαν). Implies "The lie" (τῷ ψεύδει, with the article) is idolatry itself, the claim that the creature is God. "The Creator" (τὸν κτίσαντα) again recalls Gen 1:1 (xref.Rom.1.25.Gen.1.1.heb). The blessing is a Jewish reflex of worship. Even while describing the refusal to worship, Paul gives God the praise that was withheld (compare 9:5; 11:36).

The background is the Greco-Roman world of gods in human form and the Egyptian animal cults, which Jewish and pagan writers alike mocked (Herodotus, Hist. 2.65–76; Juvenal, Sat. 15.1–13). Paul's list covers both (note.historical.Rom.1.1-Rom.1.32.idols-animals).

Note ID: note.exegetical.Rom.1.21-Rom.1.23.exchange-of-glory

Romans 1:24–28: "God gave them over"

24 Therefore God gave them over in the desires of their hearts to impurity for the dishonoring of their bodies with one another. 25 They exchanged the truth of God for a lie, and worshiped and served the creature rather than the Creator, who is forever worthy of praise! Amen. (BSB)

Says Three times Paul writes παρέδωκεν αὐτοὺς ὁ θεός, "God gave them over" (note.language.Rom.1.24.paredoken; lex.G3860): - 1:24, "in the desires of their hearts to impurity for the dishonoring of their bodies with one another" (BSB); - 1:26, "to dishonorable passions" (εἰς πάθη ἀτιμίας); - 1:28, "to a depraved mind" (εἰς ἀδόκιμον νοῦν).

Each time the verdict answers an exchange or refusal: "exchanged" (ἤλλαξαν, 1:23), "exchanged" (μετήλλαξαν, 1:25), "did not see fit" (οὐκ ἐδοκίμασαν, 1:28).

Implies The handing over is God's own judicial act, not mere permission. It is the present form of the wrath "being revealed" (1:18). God hands people over to what they have chosen, so the punishment fits the sin. The desires are "of their hearts" (1:24), and God does not create the sin he gives them over to. The Old Testament speaks the same way: "So I gave them up to their stubborn hearts to follow their own devices" (Ps 81:12, BSB; LXX 80:13, ἐξαπέστειλα; vmap.Ps.81.12.LXX-Swete.lxx-swete). Compare also Acts 7:42 ("God turned away from them and gave them over," BSB). The Westminster Confession cites Rom 1:24, 26, 28 for God giving sinners "over to their own lusts," while he remains neither "the author or approver of sin" (WCF 5.4, 5.6). Implies The same verb describes the Father's giving up of the Son "for us all" (8:32) and Christ "delivered over to death for our trespasses" (4:25, BSB). The letter later answers the handing over of 1:24–28 with the handing over of the Son.

Says In 1:24 the outcome is "the dishonoring of their bodies" ἐν αὐτοῖς ("among themselves"). The Byzantine ἐν ἑαυτοῖς makes the reflexive sense explicit (var.Rom.1.24.en-autois). Whether Paul wrote Διό or Διὸ καί ("therefore also") barely affects the sense, and the team's confidence is medium (var.Rom.1.24.dio-kai).

Says In 1:28 there is a wordplay: "since they did not see fit to acknowledge God, He gave them up to a depraved mind" (BSB). "Did not see fit" is οὐκ ἐδοκίμασαν, and "depraved" is ἀδόκιμον (note.language.Rom.1.28.adokimon; lex.G1381; lex.G96). Implies Because they judged God not worth acknowledging, God gave them over to a mind that fails every test and can no longer judge rightly. The mind "renewed" in 12:2, able "to test and approve" (εἰς τὸ δοκιμάζειν) God's will, is the reversal of this. The result is "to do what ought not to be done" (τὰ μὴ καθήκοντα, a moralists' term for what is unfitting), which the vice list goes on to fill out.

Note ID: note.exegetical.Rom.1.24-Rom.1.28.paredoken

Romans 1:26–27: "Contrary to nature"

26 For this reason God gave them over to dishonorable passions. Even their women exchanged natural relations for unnatural ones. 27 Likewise, the men abandoned natural relations with women and burned with lust for one another. Men committed indecent acts with other men and received in themselves the due penalty for their error. (BSB)

These verses concern matters that touch many readers personally. The commentary sets out what the text says, the reasons for the historic reading, and the main alternative readings stated fairly. It draws no application.

Says "For this reason God gave them over to dishonorable passions. Even their women exchanged natural relations for unnatural ones. Likewise, the men abandoned natural relations with women and burned with lust for one another. Men committed indecent acts with other men and received in themselves the due penalty for their error" (1:26–27, BSB). In the Greek, the "women" are θήλειαι (thēleiai, "females") and the "men" are οἱ ἄρσενες (hoi arsenes, "males"). The females exchanged (μετήλλαξαν) τὴν φυσικὴν χρῆσιν ("the natural use") for τὴν παρὰ φύσιν ("that which is contrary to nature"). "Likewise" (ὁμοίως) the males, abandoning (ἀφέντες, aphentes) the same natural use, burned "for one another" (εἰς ἀλλήλους), ἄρσενες ἐν ἄρσεσιν ("males with males"). Says These verses illustrate the "dishonoring of their bodies" (1:24) and the "dishonorable passions" (1:26) to which God handed people over after they exchanged the Creator for the creature (1:25). Within the argument they stand as a sign of the wider exchange, not as a separate topic.

Implies On the historic reading, held across the church's history and by the team, Paul here judges same-sex intercourse, by men and by women, to be contrary to the Creator's design. The grounds are these. - "Contrary to nature." The phrase παρὰ φύσιν ("contrary to nature") is set against φυσικὴ χρῆσις ("natural use"; note.language.Rom.1.26.physiken-para-physin; lex.G5446; lex.G5449). In a passage framed by "the creation of the world" (1:20) and "the Creator" (1:25), "nature" is the order God made, not personal disposition or local custom. Paul shares the moralists' vocabulary, which Plato, Musonius Rufus, and Philo apply to the same acts (Plato, Leg. 636c; Musonius, Lecture 12; Philo, Spec. 3.39). He does not share their foundation (note.historical.Rom.1.1-Rom.1.32.stoic-physis). - The Gen 1 echoes. Paul uses the sex terms θήλειαι and ἄρσενες ("females," "males"), not the usual words for women and men. These recall Gen 1:27, "male and female He created them" (BSB): זָכָר וּנְקֵבָה (zakhar uneqevah), LXX ἄρσεν καὶ θῆλυ. Gen 1:20–26 already stands behind 1:23 (note.language.Rom.1.20.gen-1-creation-order; xref.Rom.1.26-Rom.1.27.Gen.1.27.heb). - The Levitical background. Lev 18:22 forbids lying with a male מִשְׁכְּבֵי אִשָּׁה (mishkeve ishah, "as one lies with a woman") and calls it תּוֹעֵבָה (to'evah, "an abomination"). Lev 20:13 applies the prohibition to both partners. The LXX wording is general (μετὰ ἄρσενος … κοίτην γυναικός), with no qualification of age, status, or cultic setting. Lev 18:24–28 says the nations were defiled by these practices, so the law is not only Israel's ritual code (note.language.Rom.1.26.lev-18-22-20-13; xref.Rom.1.26-Rom.1.27.Lev.18.22.heb; xref.Rom.1.26-Rom.1.27.Lev.20.13.heb). Jewish writers of Paul's time read these laws in the same way (Philo, Spec. 3.37–42; Josephus, C. Ap. 2.199; Pseudo-Phocylides 190–192; note.historical.Rom.1.1-Rom.1.32.sexual-ethics). - Mutuality. "For one another" (εἰς ἀλλήλους) describes mutual desire. The verse is not limited to exploitation or to the abuse of boys, and the women of 1:26 fit no pederastic model.

Implies "Likewise" (ὁμοίως, 1:27) ties the men's abandoning of "the natural use" (ἀφέντες τὴν φυσικὴν χρῆσιν) to the women's exchange of it in 1:26 (μετήλλαξαν τὴν φυσικὴν χρῆσιν). Both leave the same natural use, so the women's "unnatural relations" are best taken as same-sex relations. The pairing of male and female same-sex relations in Plato (Leg. 636c) and Pseudo-Phocylides (190–192) supports this.

A minority historic view reads the women's exchange in 1:26 differently. Augustine took it of unnatural acts between women and men, not of relations between women (Nupt. 2.20.35), and some other early readers followed him (note.historical.Rom.1.1-Rom.1.32.sexual-ethics).

Several modern scholars read these verses differently. John Boswell argued that "nature" means a person's own disposition, so that Paul condemns heterosexual people acting against their own nature (src.boswell-csth). Robin Scroggs argued that the only model of same-sex relations Paul knew was pederasty, often exploitative, so his words do not address committed adult relationships (src.scroggs-nt-homosexuality). Bernadette Brooten agrees that Paul condemns female as well as male same-sex relations. She argues that his idea of "nature" rests on an ancient hierarchy of gender that modern readers need not share (src.brooten-love-between-women). Dale Martin argues that the passage describes a mythic fall of humanity into idolatry, with disordered desire as its consequence, and is not a statement about homosexual orientation (src.martin-bibint-1995). Responses to these readings include Richard Hays, who answers Boswell from Paul's creation framework (src.hays-jre-1986), and Robert Gagnon, who answers the exploitation and orientation readings at length (src.gagnon-bhp, ch. 4).

Uncertain The meaning of "the due penalty for their error" (τὴν ἀντιμισθίαν … τῆς πλάνης). The "error" is most likely the exchange of God for idols (1:23, 25; compare πλανᾶσθαι in Wis 14:22, non-canonical). The "penalty" is most likely the handing over itself, the dishonorable passions and acts, and not a particular disease. The text does not say more.

Implies The passage does not single out one group. It describes humanity's turn from the Creator, and its examples continue at once in 1:29–31: envy, deceit, gossip, arrogance, disobedience to parents. Romans 2:1 turns on the reader who agrees with the verdict: "you who pass judgment do the same things" (BSB). The whole section ends at 3:22–24 with all people sinners and all justified "freely by His grace" through Christ (BSB).

Note ID: note.exegetical.Rom.1.26-Rom.1.27.para-physin

Romans 1:29–32: The vice list and the verdict

29 They have become filled with every kind of wickedness, evil, greed, and depravity. They are full of envy, murder, strife, deceit, and malice. They are gossips, 30 slanderers, God-haters, insolent, arrogant, and boastful. They invent new forms of evil; they disobey their parents. 31 They are senseless, faithless, heartless, merciless. 32 Although they know God’s righteous decree that those who do such things are worthy of death, they not only continue to do these things, but also approve of those who practice them. (BSB)

Says The "depraved mind" (1:28) produces a crowd of vices. People are "filled with" (πεπληρωμένους) four of them, "full of" (μεστούς) five more, and then a series of descriptions follows, ending in four words that begin with the negative prefix ἀ-: "senseless, faithless, heartless, merciless" (1:29–31, BSB; note.historical.Rom.1.1-Rom.1.32.vice-list). Implies The list is crafted for hearing (φθόνου φόνου, "envy, murder," 1:29) and is not random. Its items damage neighbors (strife, deceit, gossip, slander), families ("they disobey their parents," 1:30), and the relationship with God ("God-haters," θεοστυγεῖς). Most are sins of everyday life, not only extreme crimes. This puts every reader within its reach, which prepares for 2:1. Catalogs of vices were a common moral form in Stoic, Hellenistic Jewish, and Qumran writing (Wis 14:25–26, non-canonical; 1QS 4.9–11). The parallels show a shared form, and Paul's source cannot be identified.

Says The text printed here does not have "sexual immorality" (πορνείᾳ) in 1:29 or "implacable" (ἀσπόνδους) in 1:31, though the Byzantine text and the TR include both. The team prints the shorter text with high confidence (var.Rom.1.29.porneia; var.Rom.1.31.aspondous). The order of "wickedness, greed, malice" is decided with medium confidence (var.Rom.1.29.poneria-kakia-order). None of these choices changes the argument.

Says "Although they know God's righteous decree that those who do such things are worthy of death, they not only continue to do these things, but also approve of those who practice them" (1:32, BSB; "righteous decree" is τὸ δικαίωμα τοῦ θεοῦ). Implies "Knowing" (ἐπιγνόντες) carries forward the theme of real but refused knowledge (1:19–21, 28). Even without the written law, people know that God judges these things (compare 2:14–15). "Worthy of death" refers to God's judgment, death as "the wages of sin" (6:23, BSB), and not to a civil penalty. Uncertain Whether "worthy of death" echoes Lev 20:13. It is possible but not shown, and Paul speaks of God's verdict, not a human court (note.language.Rom.1.26.lev-18-22-20-13; xref.Rom.1.32.Lev.20.13.heb).

Implies Approving others who do these things (συνευδοκοῦσιν) is the final step of the decline. Sin is now a settled conviction, publicly endorsed, and no longer only a private failure. The printed text is secure, and all editions agree. The Western addition "they did not understand" after "knowing" (οὐκ ἐνόησαν, with other wordings in G and a lost minuscule) is an early explanatory gloss (var.Rom.1.32.ouk-enoesan). B's participles, "not only those who do them but also those who approve," leave the sentence without a main verb and look like an attempt to ease the sense (var.Rom.1.32.poiousin-syneudokousin).

Implies The section closes without a word of hope, and that is deliberate. Romans 2:1 begins at once, "You, therefore, have no excuse" (BSB, ἀναπολόγητος, echoing 1:20), so that the reader who agrees with 1:18–32 is caught by it. The hope comes in 3:21–26, when "the righteousness of God" of 1:17 returns to answer "the wrath of God" of 1:18.

Textual: Romans 1:29 (variant unit: ἀδικίᾳ πονηρίᾳ / ἀδικίᾳ πορνείᾳ πονηρίᾳ / πορνείᾳ for πονηρίᾳ) - In text: πάσῃ ἀδικίᾳ πονηρίᾳ πλεονεξίᾳ κακίᾳ (pasē adikia ponēria pleonexia kakia, "with all unrighteousness, wickedness, greed, malice"): ℵ, A, B, C, K, 33 (Tisch. 17), cop, aeth, Ephraem, Basil (divided), Chrysostom, Origen (Lat.), Lucifer, Ambrosiaster, Augustine. = SBLGNT, NA28, WH, Treg - Alternative 1: πάσῃ ἀδικίᾳ πορνείᾳ πονηρίᾳ πλεονεξίᾳ κακίᾳ (pasē adikia porneia ponēria pleonexia kakia, "with all unrighteousness, sexual immorality, wickedness, greed, malice"): L, 𝔐, syrˢᶜʰ, syrᵖ, arm, Basil (divided), Gregory of Nyssa, Theodoret. = Byz, TR - Alternative 2: πάσῃ ἀδικίᾳ κακίᾳ πορνείᾳ πλεονεξίᾳ (pasē adikia kakia porneia pleonexia, "with all unrighteousness, malice, sexual immorality, greed"): D*, E, G, itᵈ, itᵉ, itᵍ. - Evidence (from the variant record):

SBLGNT lacks πορνείᾳ; RP2018 and TR read ἀδικίᾳ πορνείᾳ πονηρίᾳ πλεονεξίᾳ κακίᾳ (TR raw: adikia porneia ponhria pleonexia kakia). For the order of the other nouns see var.Rom.1.29.poneria-kakia-order.

Manuscripts (Tischendorf 8, vol. 2 (1872), pp. 368–369; patristic attributions are his): without πορνείᾳ: ℵ A B C K and several minuscules, including 33, the Coptic and Ethiopic, Ephraem, Basil, Chrysostom, John of Damascus, and the Latin fathers. With πορνείᾳ: L and most later manuscripts, both Syriac versions, the Armenian, Basil (he is cited on both sides), Gregory of Nyssa, Theodoret. D* E G and the Old Latin d e g have πορνείᾳ in place of πονηρίᾳ, after κακίᾳ; a corrector of D (Dᶜ) restores πονηρίᾳ. P has καὶ πορνείᾳ and omits πονηρίᾳ.

Internal: ΠΟΡΝΕΙΑ and ΠΟΝΗΡΙΑ differ by only a few letters in uncial script. That explains both the substitution (D G) and the doubling (L, Byz). - Decision: Print the text without πορνείᾳ, with high confidence. Byz and TR add it, probably from a doubled ΠΟΝΗΡΙΑ / ΠΟΡΝΕΙΑ. Sexual sin is still in view in the context (1:24–27). Confidence high. - Variant record: var.Rom.1.29.porneia.

Textual: Romans 1:31 (variant unit: ἀστόργους, ἀνελεήμονας / ἀστόργους, ἀσπόνδους, ἀνελεήμονας) - In text: ἀσυνέτους, ἀσυνθέτους, ἀστόργους, ἀνελεήμονας (asynetous, asynthetous, astorgous, aneleēmonas, "senseless, faithless, heartless, merciless"): ℵ*, A, B, D*, E, G, itᵈ, itᵉ, itᵍ, vgᶠᵘ*, cop, syrˢᶜʰ, Origen (Lat.), Ephraem, Lucifer. = SBLGNT, NA28, WH, Treg - Alternative: ἀσυνέτους, ἀσυνθέτους, ἀστόργους, ἀσπόνδους, ἀνελεήμονας (asynetous, asynthetous, astorgous, aspondous, aneleēmonas, "… heartless, implacable, merciless"): ℵᶜ, C, Dᶜ, K, L, P, 𝔐, vg, syrᵖ, arm, Gregory of Nyssa, Chrysostom, Theodoret. = Byz, TR - Evidence (from the variant record):

SBLGNT lacks ἀσπόνδους; RP2018 and TR have it. TAGNT marks it TR+Byz only.

Manuscripts (Tischendorf 8, vol. 2 (1872), p. 369): without ἀσπόνδους: ℵ* A B D* E G, the Old Latin d e g, fu*, cop, syrˢᶜʰ, Origen (Lat.), Ephraem, John of Damascus, Lucifer. With it: ℵᶜ (Tischendorf's corrector notation), C, Dᶜ, K L P and most later manuscripts, vg, syrᵖ, arm, Gregory of Nyssa, Chrysostom, Theodoret, Oecumenius. Two minuscules put it before ἀστόργους.

Internal: ἄσπονδος stands next to ἄστοργοι in the vice list of 2 Tim 3:3, and the like-sounding ἀ- words invite additions. The shifting position also suggests an insertion. - Decision: Print the text without ἀσπόνδους, with high confidence. Byz and TR add it, probably from 2 Tim 3:3. Confidence high. - Variant record: var.Rom.1.31.aspondous.

Textual: Romans 1:32 (variant unit: ἐπιγνόντες / ἐπιγνόντες οὐκ ἐνόησαν / οὐκ ἔγνωσαν / οὐ συνῆκαν) - In text: τὸ δικαίωμα τοῦ θεοῦ ἐπιγνόντες, ὅτι (to dikaiōma tou theou epignontes, hoti, "although they know God's righteous decree that"): ℵ, A, B (ἐπιγινώσκοντες), C, K, L, P, 𝔐, Ephraem, Chrysostom, Theodoret. = SBLGNT, NA28, Byz, TR, WH, Treg - Alternative 1: τὸ δικαίωμα τοῦ θεοῦ ἐπιγνόντες οὐκ ἐνόησαν, ὅτι (… epignontes ouk enoēsan, hoti, "although they knew God's decree, they did not understand that"): D*, E, Basil (divided), itᵈ, itᵉ, vg, Origen (Lat.), Cyprian, Lucifer, Ambrosiaster. - Alternative 2: τὸ δικαίωμα τοῦ θεοῦ ἐπιγνόντες οὐκ ἔγνωσαν, ὅτι (… epignontes ouk egnōsan, hoti, "although they knew God's decree, they did not recognize that"): G, itᵍ. - Alternative 3: τὸ δικαίωμα τοῦ θεοῦ ἐπιγνόντες οὐ συνῆκαν, ὅτι (… epignontes ou synēkan, hoti, "although they knew God's decree, they did not comprehend that"): a lost minuscule (Tisch. 15; no GA number; known only from Erasmus, via Zegers). - Evidence (from the variant record):

All print ἐπιγνόντες with no negative verb.

Manuscripts (Tischendorf 8, vol. 2 (1872), p. 369): D* E and Basil (2,422; not in his De baptismo) add οὐκ ἐνόησαν after ἐπιγνόντες. G has οὐκ ἔγνωσαν, and g "non cognoverunt aut non intellexerunt". A lost minuscule (Tisch. 15, formerly at Louvain; no Gregory–Aland number) is reported by Erasmus, via Zegers, to read οὐ συνῆκαν. The Latin d e vg, Origen (Lat.), Cyprian, Lucifer and Ambrosiaster have non intellexerunt. D* also reads οὐ μόνον γάρ later in the verse. B lacks the addition but reads ἐπιγινώσκοντες (see var.Rom.1.32.poiousin-syneudokousin).

Internal: the added verb eases the paradox of people who "know" God's decree and still act against it. Its three different forms suggest a gloss. - Decision: Print ἐπιγνόντες without a negative verb, with high confidence. All editions agree. The Western addition is early, but its varying wording marks it as an explanatory gloss. Confidence high. - Says/Implies: People know God's righteous decree. The text does not soften this with "they did not understand." - Variant record: var.Rom.1.32.ouk-enoesan.

Textual: Romans 1:32 (variant unit: ποιοῦσιν … συνευδοκοῦσιν / ποιοῦντες … συνευδοκοῦντες) - In text: οὐ μόνον αὐτὰ ποιοῦσιν ἀλλὰ καὶ συνευδοκοῦσιν τοῖς πράσσουσιν (ou monon auta poiousin alla kai syneudokousin tois prassousin, "they not only do them but also approve of those who practice them"): ℵ, A, C, D, E, G, K, L, P, 𝔐, Ephraem (divided), Basil, Chrysostom, Theodoret. = SBLGNT, NA28, Byz, TR, WH, Treg - Alternative: ἐπιγινώσκοντες … οὐ μόνον αὐτὰ ποιοῦντες ἀλλὰ καὶ συνευδοκοῦντες τοῖς πράσσουσιν (epiginōskontes … ou monon auta poiountes alla kai syneudokountes, "knowing … not only those who do them but also those who approve of those who practice them (participles)"): B, 436 (Tisch. 80; ἐπιγινώσκοντες only), itᵈ, itᵉ, itᵍ, vgᶜˡᵉ, vgᵃᵐ, vgᶠᵘ, vgᵈᵉᵐⁱᵈ, vgʰᵃʳˡ, Origen (Lat.), Cyprian, Lucifer, Ephraem (divided), Epiphanius (vid), copies known to Isidore of Pelusium. - Evidence (from the variant record):

All print ποιοῦσιν … συνευδοκοῦσιν.

Manuscripts (Tischendorf 8, vol. 2 (1872), pp. 369–370): - B (with 436 for the first word only) reads ἐπιγινώσκοντες (spelled -γειν-), then ποιοῦντες (with no οἱ before it) and συνευδοκοῦντες. The Latin d e g, the Vulgate codices cle am fu demid harl, Origen (Lat.), Cyprian and Lucifer (not Ambrosiaster) have the same sense: "not only those who do them but also those who consent." - Isidore of Pelusium (to the deacon Theologius; Tischendorf's Isid. 4,16; PG locus not checked) reports that some, not understanding the text, altered it to the participial form, claiming that an old copy had it, so that doing would be the greater fault than approving. Epiphanius seems to presuppose the same wording. - Ephraem is divided: Tischendorf cites him for the printed text (3,60) and for οἱ ποιοῦντες … οἱ συνευδοκοῦντες (1,134; 3,444). - Compare 1 Clem. 35:6 (οὐ μόνον δὲ οἱ πράσσοντες αὐτά, ἀλλὰ καὶ οἱ συνευδοκοῦντες αὐτοῖς), which Tischendorf cites as a parallel (p. 370; read on the scan).

Internal: the participles leave the sentence without a main verb. ποιοῦσιν/συνευδοκοῦσιν is the harder, climactic form. - Decision: Print ποιοῦσιν … συνευδοκοῦσιν with high confidence. All editions agree. B's participles are early but leave the sentence without a main verb and look like an attempt to ease the sense. Confidence high. - Says/Implies: Knowing God's decree, people both do these things and approve of others who do them. - Variant record: var.Rom.1.32.poiousin-syneudokousin.

Note ID: note.exegetical.Rom.1.29-Rom.1.32.vice-list-and-verdict

Minor variants (no change in meaning; STYLE_GUIDE L19). Each unit keeps its own variant record, with the full evidence and decision. - Romans 1:8: text περὶ πάντων ὑμῶν (ℵ, A, B, C, D*, K, …) / alt. ὑπὲρ πάντων ὑμῶν (Dᶜ, E, G, L, P, 𝔐, …). Byz, TR = alternative. Confidence high. var.Rom.1.8.peri-hyper. - Romans 1:13: text ἵνα τινὰ καρπὸν σχῶ (ℵ, A, B, C, D, E, …) / alt. ἵνα καρπόν τινα σχῶ (a few minuscules (per Tischendorf), syrᵖ, arm). Byz = text; TR = alternative. Confidence high. var.Rom.1.13.tina-karpon. - Romans 1:19: text ὁ θεὸς γὰρ αὐτοῖς ἐφανέρωσεν (ℵ, A, B, C, D*, E, …) / alt. ὁ γὰρ θεὸς αὐτοῖς ἐφανέρωσεν (Dᶜ, K, L, P, 𝔐, Athanasius, …). Byz, TR = alternative. Confidence high. var.Rom.1.19.ho-theos-gar. - Romans 1:24: text Διὸ παρέδωκεν αὐτοὺς ὁ θεός (ℵ, A, B, C, vg, syrˢᶜʰ, …) / alt. Διὸ καὶ παρέδωκεν αὐτοὺς ὁ θεός (D, E, G, K, L, P, …). Byz, TR = alternative. Confidence medium. var.Rom.1.24.dio-kai. - Romans 1:24: text τὰ σώματα αὐτῶν ἐν αὐτοῖς (ℵ, A, B, C, D*, 104 (Tisch. 31), …) / alt. τὰ σώματα αὐτῶν ἐν ἑαυτοῖς (Dᶜ, E, G, K, L, P, …). Byz, TR = alternative. Confidence high. var.Rom.1.24.en-autois. - Romans 1:29: text πονηρίᾳ πλεονεξίᾳ κακίᾳ (B, L, 𝔐, syrᵖ, arm, Basil, …) / alt. 1 πονηρίᾳ κακίᾳ πλεονεξίᾳ (ℵ, A, syrˢᶜʰ, Ephraem, Origen (Lat.)) / alt. 2 κακίᾳ πονηρίᾳ πλεονεξίᾳ (C, cop, aeth). Byz, TR = text. Confidence medium. var.Rom.1.29.poneria-kakia-order.

Summary

This summary repeats the conclusions above. It adds no new argument.

Says Paul, a servant of Christ Jesus, called and set apart for the gospel of God, writes to the believers in Rome (1:1, 7). The gospel was promised in the Scriptures and concerns God's Son. He came from David's seed according to the flesh and was appointed Son of God in power according to the Spirit of holiness by the resurrection (1:2–4). Paul's apostleship aims at the obedience of faith among all nations (1:5).
Says Paul thanks God for the Romans, longs to visit, and is under obligation to all, so he is eager to preach the gospel in Rome (1:8–15).
Says The gospel is the power of God for salvation to everyone who believes, to the Jew first and also to the Greek. In it the righteousness of God is revealed from faith to faith, as Hab 2:4 says (1:16–17).
Says The wrath of God is revealed against all who suppress the truth (1:18). God has made himself known in creation, so people are without excuse. They knew God but did not glorify him or give thanks, and they exchanged his glory for images and his truth for a lie (1:19–23, 25). God gave them over three times: to impurity, to dishonorable passions, and to a depraved mind (1:24–28). Knowing his decree, they do these things and approve of others who do them (1:29–32).
Implies The Son is Son before his installation in power. 1:4 describes his messianic enthronement at the resurrection in fulfillment of 2 Sam 7 and Ps 2, not the beginning of his Sonship. The righteousness of God at 1:17 is his saving righteousness, which includes the righteous status he gives through faith. It is credited, not earned (Rom 4:3–8; 5:18–19; Phil 3:9). God's wrath is personal and judicial, and his handing over is its present form. General revelation leaves all without excuse but does not save. On the historic reading held by the team, 1:26–27 judges same-sex intercourse contrary to the Creator's design. The indictment reaches every reader (2:1) and prepares for the gospel of 3:21–26.
Uncertain The order of Paul's titles in 1:1 (low confidence); "appointed" or "declared" and the sense of "according to the Spirit of holiness" (1:4); the genitive in "obedience of faith" (1:5); the purpose of the letter; the shade of "from faith to faith" and the construal of Hab 2:4 (1:17); how far covenant faithfulness belongs to "the righteousness of God" at 1:17; whether the golden calf or Adam is in view at 1:23; the "due penalty" of 1:27; and whether 1:32 echoes Lev 20:13.

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